D * o * * 



i'! 



*K+ ^ (J i A v 




A GRAMMAR 

OF THE 

GREEK LANGUAGE, 



PRINCIPALLY FROM THE GERMAN OF EUHNER, 



WITH SELECTIONS FROM 

MATTHLE, BUTTMANN, THIERSCH, AND ROST. 

FOR THE 

USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



BY 

CHARLES A NTH ON, ILJ., 

JAY-PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, 
NEW-YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. 




N E W-Y R K: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF- STREET. 





Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1844, by 

Hakpek & Brothers, 
In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York. 




TO 

THE REV. J. R. MAJOR, D.D., 

HEAD MASTER OF KTNG's-COLLEGE SCHOOL, LONDON, ^ | 

AS A TOKEN OF SINCERE REGARD AND ESTEEM, 
BY HIS FRIEND 

THE AUTHOR. 



PREFACE. 



The very favorable reception extended to the au- 
thor's previous grammar of the Greek language, and 
the urgent solicitations of many valued friends, have 
induced him to present the same work in a more en- 
larged and complete form. His object has been to 
furnish the student with a general view of the leading 
features of Greek philology, and to place in his hands 
a volume that may prove a useful auxiliary to him 
throughout the whole of his academic and collegiate 
career. In order to effect this more thoroughly, re- 
course has been had to the writings of the latest and 
best of the German grammarians, and especially to 
those of Kuhner, which are now justly regarded as the 
ablest of their kind. The greater part of the present 
work, therefore, is a translation and abridgment from 
the different grammars of this eminent scholar, name- 
ly, his " Copious Grammar of the Greek Language," 
his " School Grammar" of the same tongue, and his 
" Abridged Grammar for Beginners." An English edi- 
tion of the last of these has recently appeared, from 
which the author of the present work has obtained very 
important aid, especially under the head of the verb ; 
but in general he has had recourse at once to the origi- 
nal German. Independently, however, of the materials 
thus obtained from the productions of Kuhner, the au- 
thor has incorporated into the volume many valuable 
additions from Matthiae, Buttmann, Thiersch, and Rost, 

A2 



viii 



PREFACE. 



so that the present work may be regarded as a com- 
pend of all that is immediately useful for the student, 
drawn from the most approved modern sources. 

It is believed that, under the head of Paradigms, the 
grammar here offered will be found to contain much 
more numerous and complete exemplifications of de- 
clension and conjugation than any that has preceded 
it in an English garb. Under the head of the Verb, 
also, a pure verb has been selected, with Kiihner, as the 
model of regular inflection, and by this means we are 
enabled to display the stem throughout the whole 
paradigm, unaffected by those changes to which it is 
often subject when the characteristic letter is a conso- 
nant. The paradigms of the verbs in -ju will also be 
found unusually full and accurate ; while the arrange- 
ment of the irregular verbs, which is likewise taken 
from Kiihner, will be confessed by all to be of pe- 
culiar excellence, and a striking instance of neat and 
methodical classification. 

Another new feature in the present work is the fre- 
quent reference to the Sanscrit and other cognate lan- 
guages. No Greek grammar at the present day can 
be regarded as complete without this, and the time, it 
is hoped, is not far distant when this department of 
philology will be considered as the true and only ave- 
nue to an accurate knowledge of the language of 
Greece. 

In the Syntax, which is here presented in a much 
more enlarged form than in the previous grammar, 
care has been taken that the rules should be full and 
accurate, and yet conveyed in language tinged as 
slightly as possible with that technical and peculiar 
diction, which, however well it may suit the schools 
of Germany, is at present still out of place with us. 



PREFACE. 



ix 



Indeed, it may be thought by some that too much of 
the oldfashioned nomenclature has here been retained ; 
but the author's own experience in teaching has con- 
vinced him that, constituted as many of our schools 
and colleges are, this is certainly erring on the safer 
side of the two. 

It was the intention of the author to have appended 
to the present work an essay on the pronunciation of 
the Greek language, with the view of aiding to over- 
throw that vile heresy which has recently started up 
among us, of pronouncing the ancient Greek by accent 
merely, without any regard to the rules of prosody. 
The size, however, to which the volume had been 
gradually enlarged by the addition of other matter, 
prevented the author from putting this part of his plan 
into execution ; and he has therefore reserved the es- 
say in question for the new edition of Liddell and 
Scott's Greek and English Lexicon, which is now 
advancing rapidly through the press under the care 
of his learned and accomplished friend, Mr. Drisler ; 
and which, when completed, will be decidedly the 
most useful, accurate, and comprehensive work of its 
kind that has ever appeared in this country. 

The mention of Mr. Drisler's name reminds the au- 
thor of the pleasing duty which he has again to dis- 
charge of publicly thanking that most accurate and 
excellent scholar for his valuable assistance in pre- 
senting this grammar in so correct, and, it is hoped, so 
useful a form, to the notice of the student. 

Columbia College, June 15th, 1844. 



INDEX. 



Page 

Accents 11, 530 

Accentuation of Verb . . . 262 
Accusative, Syntax of . . . 445 

Adjectives 133 

of three Terminations . 134 

of two Terminations . 157 

of one Termination . 170 

Adverbs . 387 

, Comparison of . . 186 

, Numeral .... 194 

^Eolic Dialect 18 

Anomalous Nouns .... 105 
Anomalous Verbs .... 343 

Aphseresis 39 

Apocope 39 

Article 43 

, Syntax of . . . .418 

■ , Declension ... 44 

, Remarks on . .44 

, Dialects of ... 45 

Attic 2d Declension ... 61 



Dialect 19 

Augment 235, 264 

, in Composition . . 272 

Breathings 9 

Cases, Remarks on . . • . 123 

Comparison 173 

, Anomalous . . 182 

Conjugations * 227 

Conjunctions 393 

Consonants 7 

, Changes of . . .31 

, Accumulation of . 37 

, Doubling of 39 

Contraction 21 

Contractions of 1st Declension . 50 

. of 2d Declension . 59 

. of 3d Declension . 76 

Contracted Verbs . . . .274 

Correlatives 220 

Crasis 23 



Page 

Dative, Syntax of . . . .446 
Declension, first .... 46 

, Dialects of . . .54 

, Quantity of . . .52 

, Remarks on . . .52 

Declension, second .... 56 

, , Attic form of . 61 

, , Contractions of 59 

, , Dialects of . 63 

Declension, third .... 64 

, , Case-endings of 65 

, , Dialects of. . 101 

, , Quantity of . 99 

Deponent Verbs .... 489 

Dialects 18 

Dialect-changes .... 18 

Digamma 10 

Diphthongs 5 

Doric Dialect 60 

Dual (note) 42 

Elision 25 

Enclitics 535 

Endings, Case 123 

, Inflectional . . .237 

, Personal . . . .239 

Epenthesis ..... 39 
Euphonic Changes .... 20 

E/>t . 369 

Elixi. ..... 369 

Feet. 520 

Figures affecting Syllables . . 39 
Formation of Words . . . 498 
of Tenses (vid. Tenses). 

Genitive. Remarks on . . 431 
, Syntax of. . . .431 

Heteroclites 118 

Hiatus 30 

Homeric Suffixes .... 127 

Iambic Verse ..... 522 
Indeclinable Words . . . 122 



xii 



INDEX. 



Page 

Infinitive, Syntax of 450 
Ionic Dialect 18 



Letters . 

, Division of 

Local Endings 

Metaplastic Nouns . 

Metathesis 

Metres 

Moods 

, Force . 



Mood-vowels 



N (<Pz\kvotik6v 
Negative Particles . 
Nouns 

Numbers of the Verb 
Numerals 

, Remarks on 

, Declension of 

Numeral Adverbs . 
Signs 



Participles 



-, Syntax of 



Participials 
Parts of Speech 
Patronymics . 
Persons . 
Personal Endings 
Prepositions . 
Pronouns . 



, Correlative 
, Definite . 
, Demonstrative 
, Indefinite 
, Interrogative 
, Personal 
, Possessive 
, Reciprocal 
, Reflexive 
, Relative^ 



1 
4 
129 

120 
40 
521 
231 
489 
239 

29 
391 

45 
233 
187 
192 
193 
194 
189 

39 
133 
454 
232 

41 
130 
233 
239 
460 
197 
220 
206 
210 
213 
218 
198 
205 
220 
208 
216 



Page 

Pronouns, lengthened Forms of . 222 

, Syntax of 426 

Proportionals ..... 196 

Pronunciation 3 

Prosthesis 39 

Punctuation 15 

Redundant Nouns • 116 

Reduplication 268 

, Attic ... 270 

Rules for Cases .... 43 

Semivowels 7 

Synseresis . .... 21 

Syncope 39 

Synizesis 25 

Syntax . . . . . .402 

Tenses . . . . . .229 

, characteristic Letter of . 237 

, Endings . . . .237 

— , Force of ... 479 

, Formation of . . .281 

Tmesis . . . . .40 



Verbs. 



-, Accentuation of 
-, Anomalous . 
~, Contracted . 
-, Classification of 
— , Copiousness of 
-, Dialects of . 
-, Impure 
-, Liquid . 
-, Mute . 
-, Paradigm of 

Pure . 
-, Remarks on 
- Stem of 

in MI . 



Voices 
Vowels . 
Vowel- changes 



224 
262 
274 
225 
225 
376 
290 
324 
294 
309 
244 
254 
234 
353 
228 
4 
21 



GREEK GRAMMAR, 



ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I. 

LETTERS, PRONUNCIATION, &c. 

I. ALPHABET. 1 

I. The Greek alphabet consists of twenty-four letters,, 
of which seven are vowels, and seventeen are consonants. 

II. The forms, names, and English characteristics of the 
letters are as follows : 

FORM. NAME. CHARACTERISTICS. 



A, 


a, 


Alpha, 


'AA<£a, 


A. 


B, 


0, 6, 


Beta, 


Brjra, 


B. 


r, 


J J, 


Gamma, 


YdflfMl, 


G. 


A 


A 
°J 


Dmitri 






E, 




Epsllon, 


*E ifilXov, 


E short. 


z, 




Zeta, 


T Hra, 


Z. 


H, 




Eta, 


E long. 


e, 




• Theta, 


QfjTa, 


TH. 


i, 




Iota, 


'Iwra, 


I. 


K, 


K, 


Kappa, 


Karma, 


K. 


A, 


A, 


Lambda, 


Adfidda, 


L. 


M, 


P> 


Mu, 


M£, 


M. 


N, 




Nu, 


Nv, 


N. 




#, 


Xi, 


St, 


X. 


o, 


o, 


micron, 


,V JMfCpOV, 


short. 


n, 


7T, ST, 


Pi, 




P. 


p, 


P> • 


Rho, 




R. 


2, 


<r, (f final), 


Sigma, 
Tau, 


^iy\ia, 


S. 


T, 




Tav, 


T. 


T, 




UpsTlon, 




U. 


*, 




Phi, 


<H, 


PH. 


x, 




Chi, 


X?, 


CH. 






Psi, 




PS. 


Q, 




Omega, 


T £2 ^eya, 


long. 



I. For some remarks on the history of the Greek alphabet, con 
suit Appendix T. 

A 



2 



ALPHABET. 



Remark 1. The vowel e has the epithet ijjlhov, "bare," or 
"smooth," i. c, not aspirated, added to it, because in the earlier 
Greek alphabet the e was also one of the marks used to indicate 
the rough breathing, or aspirate, in which latter case it would have 
the name of e daov, "rough e," or "aspirated c." The soft e, 
therefore, seems, both from its sound and its position in the alpha- 
bet, to have arisen from the Oriental he, and the rough e from the 
hheth, a strong Oriental aspirate. In process of time the rough e 
assumed the name of eta (softened down from hheth, which was too 
strong for a Grecian ear), as well as the form H, or rj. 

Remark 2. Small o is so called to distinguish it from omega (u) 9 
or great (i. e., long) o. 

Remark 3. The sigma takes the form of g at the end of a word ; 
as, GELGfiog. The German editors even use the final g in compound 
words, to mark the termination of the first part of the compound ; 
as, TrpogfyepG), from irpog and <}>£po) : elcfyepu : dvc^evrig, &c. This 
practice, however, has no manuscript authority in its favor. — The 
final g must not be confounded with the r, or stigma, mentioned in 
remark 5. 

Remark 4. TJpsilon, or smooth v (compare remark 1), is so called, 
to distinguish it from "rough," or aspirated v (v daov), which last 
was one of the ancient marks of the digamma. The mark v, 
therefore, like that of s, would seem to have been in the early al- 
phabet a sign of aspiration. Compare the Latin V. 

Remark 5. Besides the letters here given, there were three others 
in the early Greek alphabet, which do not, however, appear in the 
Attic and Ionic alphabets ; and which, in the course of time, fell 
out of the alphabet, and were used merely as numeric signs. These 
were, 1. Bad, or Fav, originating from the Oriental Vau, and an- 
swering to 6, from its occupying the sixth place in the ancient 
alphabet. Its mark was originally that of F or J, for which in 
time, on account of its resemblance, the sign (i. e., or) was em- 
ployed, and called Grlyjaa, stigma.— 2. Kd7T7ra, answering to 90, and 
having the form CJ". — 3. Lafxm, or lav, equal to 900, and having 
the form "2). Consult remarks under the head of Numerals. 



PRONUNCIATION, 



3 



II. PRONUNCIATION. 1 
The exact pronunciation of the Greek letters and diph- 
thongs, in the flourishing period of the language, it is now 
impossible to ascertain. The following, however, may be 
regarded as an approximation to the same : 

A, when long, is to be sounded like the English a in 

far ; and when short, like the a in fat. 
r, before a vowel, has the sound of the hard English g ; 
but before another y, and also before tc, or %, it is 
to be pronounced like ng in the word sing ; 2 thus, ay- 
yeXog, pronounce ang-gelos ; aytcuv, ang-kon ; 2<plyt-, 
Sphingx ; 'Ay%«77?c, Ang-chises. 
E, like the short English e in met. 

Z, like a soft d passing gently into the sound of z. Thus, 
£do), pronounce d-zao ; fieXi^G), melid-zo, &c. 

H, like the English a in cane. 

9, like the English th in think, &c. 

I, when long, like the English e in me ; when short, like 
the i in pin. 

T, like the French u in une, or like the German ii. 
X, always guttural, like the German ch in buch. 
ft, like the o in thrones. 

At, like the English adverb aye. 

Av, like the syllable ow in now. 

Et, like the English word eye. 

Ev, like the English word yew. 

Ot, like the syllable oy in hoy. 

Ov, like the oo in soon, or the ou in ragout. 

Ti, like the English pronoun we. 

1. For remarks on the pronunciation of the Greek language, con- 
sult Liddell and Scott's Greek Lexicon, Drisler's Ed. 

2 It is erroneous to make the y here answer merely to n. The 
pronunciation " J.?z-chises" instead of " <4wg--chises," and Sphinx' 1 
instead of 4i Sphingx" is a common fault. The sound required is 
that of the M N adulterinum," of the grammarian Nigidius. (AuL 
Gelt., xix., 14.) 



4 



DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 



III. DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 
Seven of the letters, as has already been said, are Vow- 
els, namely, a, e, rj, t, o, v, and (*). The remaining seven- 
teen are consonants. 

1. VOWELS. 

I. The seven vowels are divided into three classes, 
namely, Short, Long, and Doubtful. Thus, 

Short ..... e, o. 
Long . . . . . ?/, a). 
Doubtful 1 . . . a, i, v. 

II. A short vowel is one the pronunciation of which oc- 
cupies the shortest possible time. 

III. A long vowel is one which requires in its pronun- 
ciation twice as much time as a short one. In other words, 
a long vowel is equivalent to two short ones, or to two 
short times. Thus, rj is the same as ee, and o) the same 
as oo. 



IV. A doubtful vowel is one which can be pronounced 
both as short and long in different words, being short in 
some words and long in others. Thus, 





SHORT. 




LONG. 


rpdne^d, 


. A table. 


(f)iXid, 


. Friendship. 




Honey. 


vvvl, 


. Now. 


yovv, 


. A knee. 


edv, . 


. He entered. 


ayXdoc;, . 


. Brilliant. 


ortadoq, . 


. An attendant. 


irevla, 


. Poverty. 


avla, 


Sorrow. 


epvd), 


. / draw. 


ayavpa, 


. An anchor. 



1. The student must not suppose, from the epithet " doubtful," as 
applied to these vowels, that there is, in every case, something wa- 
vering and uncertain in their nature. The meaning of the term in 
question is simply this : the short vowel s has its corresponding 
long vowel rj, and the short vowel o its corresponding long vowel u ; 
but in the case of a, £, v, there is no separate vowel-sign for the long 
and short quantities, and, therefore, the length or shortness of the 
vowel is to be determined, not by the eye, but by the application of 
some rule which is to remove the doubt that previously existed as 
to the quantity. 



DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 



5 



BACK AND FRONT VOWELS. 

I. Vowels are also divided into Back and Front ones, 
according to the organs by which they are formed. 

II. A Back vowel is one formed by the organs in the 
back part of the mouth ; a Front vowel, by those in the 
front part. 

III. Hence we have, 

Back Vowels . . . a, e, o, and a, rj, G). 
Front Vowels . . I, v, and I, v. 

2. DIPHTHONGS. 

I. The vowels are combined in a variety of ways, two 
and two together, into one sound, and hence are formed the 
Diphthongs. 

II. Diphthongs are formed by the union of a back vowel 
with a front vowel, and also of v with t, producing thereby 
a sound more or less blended. Thus, 1 

a, uniting with i, forms at ) 
e " " " " el > 
o " " " " 01 ) 

a " " " " a ) 

7j " " *< ii f 

G) " " " G> \ 



a, uniting with v, forms dv ) 

e " « " " *■<»> y 

2 ) 



£ 44 44 4 4 4 4 £t; 
" 44 " " ov 2 



a M " 44 44 av I 
7] " " " " V 
oj " " " " ) (Ionic). 

v, uniting with c, forms vt ) 

V " " " " l)i V 



1. From the union of i with i, and v with v, no diphthong can 
arise, since u and vv merely pass, when this takes place, into I and 
ft; Again, the vowels i and v never pass into one sound, hut each 
is separately enunciated ; as, ivyfioc, iv&, hoth trisyllables. 

2. Ov is ranked among the diphthongs on account of the coming 
together of two vowels ; its sound, however, is, in fact, nothing 
more than that of a simple long vowel. The Romans made use of 



6 



DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 



III. Diphthongs are divided into Proper or Pure, and 
Improper or Impure. 

IV. A proper or pure diphthong is one that has the first 
or prepositive vowel short, and in this case both the com- 
ponent vowels are heard in pronunciation. 

V. An improper or Impure diphthong is one that has the 
first or prepositive vowel long, and in this case the short i 
or v is hardly heard in pronouncing. 1 

VI. The following is a tabular view of the Proper and 
Improper Diphthongs in the Greek language, the combina- 
tion G)v being a purely Ionic form : 

PROPER DIPHTHONGS. 

at, av. 
El, ev. 
ot, ov. 

VI. 

IMPROPER DIPHTHONGS. 

a, av. 
Xi, rjv. 

G) (o)v, Ionic). 

VII. The proper diphthongs, then, are seven in number. 
The improper diphthongs are also seven, including the 
purely Ionic form G)v. 

VIII. In the improper diphthongs a, rj, g), in order to 
show the weakness of the t, it is written as a point under 

it, also, to express their short u. The Greeks had no separate mark 
for short u, but expressed the same either by o, as in the old Attic 
mode of writing, or else by v, as in /Eolic. Hence the difference 
in the mode of writing different Greek names; as, 'Nofiag, Numa; 
'Pu/uivXqc, Romulus. 

1. In our modern pronunciation we make no distinction whatever 
between a, rj, w, and the simple long vowels a, tj, o. The ancients, 
however, would seem at one time to have given the iota appended 
to the other vowel a slight species of sound, and hence, probably, the 
reason why w becomes oz in some Latin words ; as, rpayudoe, tra- 
gozdus. The forms rhapsody s, prosodia, ode, &c, show, however, 
that at a subsequent period the u and u were pronounced alike, as 
at the present day. 



DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 



1 



a, 7], G), a practice first introduced in the manuscripts of the 
thirteenth century. The ancients, however, wrote this iota 
also in a line with the other letters ; and with capital let- 
ters this mode is still observed ; as, THI IO<£IAI, i. e., 
rrj oo<pia : and, again, tgj r/ Atdrj, i. e., tg> ady. 1 

3. CONSONANTS. 

I. Consonants are divided, in the first place, according 
to the organs of speech by which they are enunciated, into 
Gutturals, or throat-letters ; Linguals, or tongue-letters ; 
and Labials, or lip-letters. Thus, 

Gutturals, y, a, %. 
Linguals, d, r, #, v, X, p, a. 
Labials, f3, tt, 0, \i. 

II. Consonants are divided, in the second place, accord- 
ing to the greater or less influence of the organs of speech 
in their formation, into Semivoicels and Mutes. 

III. The Semivoicels are five in number, namely, X, fi, 
p, (7, of which X, \i, v, p are also called liquids, and a is 
also denominated the simple sibilant. 

IV. The Semivowels, or Half-vowels, are so called, be- 
cause the ancients found in the humming and hissing 
sounds of the letters X, \x, v, p, a, a sort of transition to the 
full-sounding vowels ; while the first four are termed li- 
quids, because in pronunciation they easily flow into other 
sounds. 

V. The Mutes are nine in number, namely, (3, y, 5, #, k 9 
tt, r,(p, %\ and they are called mutes, because they are let- 
ters whereof no distinct sound can be produced without the 
addition of a vowel. 

1. This subscription of the iota is quite inadmissible, however, 
with short a. Thus, ynpai, when contracted, forms, not yr/pa, but 
yr/pat. With vt the same practice of subscribing the i has never 
been attempted ; yet, perhaps, as Thiersch remarks, it had been 
better, in removing the old contracted forms of Greek typography, 
to have retained the compendious mark for vt, in order to discrimi- 
nate vi in veicvi, for example, from vi in d-vcac, &c. 



DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 



VI. These nine mutes are divided in three ways: I. 
According to the organs by which they are formed, into 
three gutturals, three h'.nguals, and three labials. 2. Accord- 
ing to their names, into three K- sounds, three T- sounds^ 
and three P- sounds. And, 3. According to the degree oi 
strength by which they are articulated, into three smooth 
three middle, and three aspirates. Thus, 





Smooth. 


Middle. 


, A.-pirates. 




Gutturals, 


K 


7 


X 


K- sounds 


Linguals, 


r 


S 


■d- 


T- sounds. 


Labials, 


7T 






P- sounds. 



VII. From the blending of the mutes of each class with 
the letter a arise three double consonants, namely, f , ^. 
Thus, 

if) from 77(7, (3<j, (po, ) 



ir a in Tvipa. 

f<7 " KdTTjTlPp. 



kg, ya, %o, 
{to), da, (day) 

Examples. 
kg in nopal;. 



Jcr in ofe* 



VIII. These * double consonants are universally used 
(except in iEolic and Doric Greek) instead of their corre- 
sponding simple letters. Not, however, where the two 
simple letters belong to two different parts of the com- 
pound ; as, sKoevoj (/. c, efc-oevco), not e^evoj. 



1. The combinations tg and -&g are merely inserted to complete 
the analogy to the eye, since f is equivalent, in fact, to 6g merely, 
and whenever ror^ comes before g it is thrown away ; as, uvvgm 
for Ilvvtgg) : and ttelgg) for ttsl^go. Sometimes, even in the case of 
3g. the same rejection takes place ; as, epsiGcj for kpeidau, where £ 
could not occupy the place of the characteristic letter (a) of the future. 

2. In most grammars, the f is said to be formed from g6, whereas 
the true position of the component letters is just the reverse, name- 
ly (5cr; and gS is merely a Doric peculiarity. That the verb o£j, for 
instance, was originally oodu, and not odau, is disproved very clearly 
by the form of the 2d perfect, od-oda, and the derivative bdyjj, as also 
by the Latin o^-or ? &c. 



BREATHINGS. 



9 



IV. BREATHINGS. 

I. There are two Breathings in Greek, the Soft and As- 
pirate? and every word beginning with a vowel or diph- 
thong must be pronounced with one or the other of them. 

II. The signs employed for these breathings are, for the 
soft ('), as del, aviog: and for the aspirate ( f ), as vnep, 
rjpelg, ovrog. 2 

III. The soft breathing has no perceptible power, but 
attaches itself to the sound pronounced, as if spontaneously, 
without any exertion of the lungs ; the aspirate, on the 
other hand, is equivalent to the modern 7i, as virep, pro- 
nounced huper ; ovrog, pronounced hootos. 

IV. The vowel v at the beginning of words in all the 
dialects, except in the iEolic, is to be pronounced with 
the aspirate ; as, vdnivOog, vdXog, v6pig. 

V. The iEolic and Epic Dialects very often neglect the 
rough breathing, and employ a soft one in its place ; as, 
ijeXiog (Attic, rjkiog) : Vfi^eg^ v\i\liv, v\i\ie (for vfieig, vfj,lv, 
vfidg), Sic. 

VI. In diphthongs the breathings are marked over the 
second vowel ; as, 0/, at, evdvg, avrog : because the 
breathing does not belong to either of the blended vowels 
separately, but to the whole mingled sound. When, how- 
ever, an improper diphthong has the iota subscribed, or, as 
in the case of capitals, adscribed, the mark of the breathing 

1. The Soft Breathing is called, in Greek, irvev/na ipilov : the 
rough one, nvevfia Saav. The epithet tyCkbv means, properly, u bare," 
or "naked," and is intended to indicate an enunciation unaccompa- 
nied by any strength of breathing; or, in other words, unclothed by a 
more than ordinary degree of strong utterance. The epithet 6aav x 
on the other hand, indicates a thick or rough covering; in other 
words, an enunciation accompanied by a strong breathing. 

2. The marks for the soft and rough breathings are to be traced 
up to the old breathing-sign H, one of the early marks of the aspi- 
rate. This H was divided by the Alexandrean grammarians, about 
200 B.C., into I- and -I, from which arose at a later period T and 
1, and lastly, ( r ) and ('). The smooth breathing originally had no 
mark, and the aspirate only was indicated. Hence the selection of 
H for subdivision. 



10 



DIGAMMA. 



is placed over the initial vowel if a small letter, or by the 
side of it if a capital ; as, ad^c, "Aidrjg, r lli, r Qi, xidetv^ 

&ICOVV. 

VII. The letter p is the only consonant that receives a 
breathing, since it cannot be pronounced without an audi- 
ble expiration. When p stands at the beginning of a word, 
therefore, this breathing is always the aspirate ; as. pea), 
pvrog, which in Latin is placed after the R, as rhetor, from 
the Greek prjTG)p. 1 

But when a p is followed by another p, the first must 
have the soft breathing, and the second the aspirate ; as, 
apprj/crog, eppsov, for two of these letters could not be pro- 
nounced in succession, each with an aspirate. 



V. DIGAMMA. 

I. Besides the rough breathing, there was in early Greek 
another sound, somewhat similar in nature, formed between 
the lips, and having the same relation to F, PH, and V, that 
the aspirate bears to CH, G, and K. 

II. It was originally a full and strong consonant, and was 
represented by a letter closely resembling, if not exactly 
identical with, the Latin F. This letter was called DU 
gamma, because resembling a double gamma, and it origi- 
nally occupied the sixth place in the Greek alphabet, as F 
continued to do in the Latin. 

III. The term Molic Digamma was given to it, because, 
though used at first in the general language of Greece, it 
was retained in the alphabet principally by those branches 
of the Grecian race that were of iEolic descent. 

IV. The name Digamma, however, was not its true one, 

1. Those words form an exception to this rule, the first two syl- 
lables of which begin each with p, in which case the first p has the 
lenis ; as, 'Papiov, paplag, fiapoc, fiopoc. Besides these four, how- 
ever, no other similar words are found in the language. (Consult 
Fischer ad Well., i., p. 244. — Herm. ad Hymn, in Cer , 450.) 



DIGAMMA. 



11 



but was invented by the grammarians of a later age. The 
correct appellation was Fau or Vau; or, when written in 
Greek characters, Bav. 

V. The pronunciation of F in Latin evinces with what 
power the digamma was originally endowed in Greek, in 
such words as Fepyov, Hrog, tdvai;, &c. 

VI. In the dialects which retained the digamma, how- 
ever, its sound was soon softened down ; and Dionysius of 
Halicarnassus calls it the syllable ov written with a single 
letter. In his time, therefore, it answered to the Latin V, 
which is expressed by ov , or to the English wh sounded 
like uh. Thus, OveXia, Latin Velia ; OvaXrjpLog, Latin 
Valerius. So, also, we may compare tijp and Ver ; Hg 
and Vis ; Fepyov and the English work, or German werk. 

VII. Between two vowels the digamma was still more 
attenuated, and passed, even with the iEolians, into v ; 
thus, avrjp, avdog, which in the common dialect were drjp 
and rjcjg. So in Latin we have faveo, fautor ; lavo, lautus, 
&c. 

VIII. Originally, indeed, this letter seems to have been 
universal between two vowels, and remained in many 
words even of the Attic and common dialects, as v, espe- 
cially when followed by a consonant. Thus, from 

we have the future %£i;ow ; from tcXdo), fut. fiXavaofxaL : 
from vrjeg (earlier form vdeg) we have the dative vavoc, 
&c. So, in Latin, we have amaverunt, i. e., amaferunt, 
a?naerunt, amarunt, &c, like %£fw, %£?3ct), 

IX. In iEolic Greek, the digamma served also for the 
rough breathing, which last had no place in that dialect. 1 



VI. ACCENTS. 
I. There are three accents in Greek, the Acute, Grave, 
and Circumflex. 



1. For farther remarks on the Digamma, consult Appendix II. 



12 



ACCENTS* 



II. The Acute is denoted by the sign ('), as (pvXag. The 
Grave is never marked, but lends its sign to the softened 
acute ; as, dyadbg dvrjp. The Circumflex is indicated by 
(~), as fCTjuog. 1 

III. In every word there can be but one predominant 
tone, to which all the rest are subordinate. This is the 
sharp, or acute accent, the fundamental tone of discourse 
being the grave. Thus, in the English words speaking 
and immortal, the tone of the accented syllable is raised, 
while the others are pronounced in a depressed or deeper 
tone. 

IV. The Grave accent, therefore, does not require any 
mark, since, if the syllable which receives the strengthen- 
ed accent be ascertained, we know that all the rest must 
have the weaker or fundamental one. Consequently, it 
would be superfluous to write Qsodtipbg, since Oeodopog is 
sufficient. 

V. When a word, which, by itself, has the acute accent 
on the last syllable, stands in connection before other words, 
the acute tone is softened down, and passes, more or less, 
into the grave. This depressed accent is called the soft- 
ened acute, and is indicated by the mark of the grave, the 
strictly grave syllables having, as we have just remarked, 
no use for this sign, and lending it, therefore, to the soften- 
ed acute. Thus, opyrj de iroXXd dpdv dvaytcd^ec aafcd, not 
dpyr] ds rcoXXd, which would be too harsh. 

VI. In diphthongs the accent stands upon the second 
vowel. When, however, an improper diphthong has the 
iota subscribed, or, as in the case of capitals, adscribed, the 
mark of the accent is placed over the initial vowel if a 
small letter, or by the side of it if a capital. The marks of 

1. The signs of the accents were invented, or first used, by the 
grammarian Aristophanes of Byzantium, about 200 B.C. But the 
accent itself is as old as the language. Hence the signs by which 
Aristophanes preserved the old living accent become of great im- 
portance. 



ACCENTS. 



13 



the acute and grave, moreover, are placed after the sign of 
the breathing, but the circumflex above it. Thus, dnai;, 
avXeiog, ddrjg, "A^c, evpog, alfia. 

POSITION OF THE ACCENTS. 

I. The Acute stands upon only one of the last three syl- 
lables of a word, whether that syllable be short or long ; as, 
KaXog, dvOpdonov, ir6Xe\iog. 

II. But of these three syllables it stands on the antepe- 
nultimate, or the third syllable from the end, only when the 
last syllable is short, or long by position merely. Thus, 
dvdpoyrrog: but dvdpG)irov, dvOpdjnG). 1 

III. The circumflex stands only on one of the last two 
syllables; and the syllable on which it thus stands must be 
long by nature, not long by position merely ; as, rov, o£jfia. 

IV. The Circumflex can stand on the last syllable, 
whether the previous syllable be long or short ; as, rjfielg, 
dfjLGjg. But the circumflex can never stand on the penult 
or last syllable but one, unless the last syllable be short, or 
long by position merely ; as, relxog, xpr]^ npdgcg, avXa^, 
KaXavpo^f). Even I and v before £ or ip are treated as 
short ; thus, (polvli;, Krjpvi; : but dupdi;, with the a, has the 
acute. 2 

SPECIAL RULES AND REMARKS. 

I. If the third syllable from the end is accented, it al- 
ways possesses the acute, and the final syllable, moreover, 
is short ; as, dvdpcondg, dvOpuirdv, dv&puTre. 

II. If the final syllable is accented, it always bears the 

1. If the acute could stand on the antepenult when the last sylla- 
ble is long by nature, it would stand, in fact,/owr places back, since 
the long final syllable would count two. 

2. The circumflex consists, in truth, of an acute and grave combi- 
ned, or ( /v ). Hence, cw/za is equivalent, in fact, to aob^ia. Now if 
a circumflex could stand on the penult, while the final syllable is 
long by nature, w T e would have the anomaly of the acute four places 
back. Thus, if we could say Kfjdu, this, on being resolved, would 
become needoo : that is, the fourth syllable from the end would be 
acuted contrary to all rule. (Compare § v., next following.) 

B 



14 



ACCENTS. 



acute (or, in continued discourse, the softened acute), ex- 
cept when it arises by contraction, or forms the genitive 
and dative of the first two declensions, or belongs, as the 
termination, to adverbs in wc. Thus, PaoiXevc;, " a kingf 
but fiaoiXel, the dative, contracted from (JaotXei. So, again, 
fcafcog, tcafcrj, nafcov, the nominative of the adjective ; but 
tcaicov, fcafcrjg, fcanov, as genitive of the first two declen- 
sions, and nafiG), fcaicxj, icatcti, as the dative. So, again, the 
adverb ftcuttig. 

III. Every dissyllabic word whose penult is the place of 
the accent, and is also long by nature, not merely by position, 
has that penult marked with a circumflex, provided the final 
syllable be a short one ; as, ^pr^ia, %wpoc : but koXitoc;, 
where the penult is long only by position ; &%Br), where 
the final syllable is long. 

IV. Hence, whenever we meet with a dissyllable having 
the penult circumflexed, we infer that the last syllable is 
short ; as, o£d\ia, Trpayfia, navi, r Iplg. 

V. According to the grammarians, a long vowel with the 
circumflex is to be considered as composed of two short 
ones, which flow together in pronunciation, of which the 
first has the acute accent and the other the grave. Thus, 
w comes from 66 ; rj from ee, &c, On the contrary, when 
two short vowels, accented thus, 66, pass over into a long 
one, this latter takes only the acute ; as G). 

VI. The student, in reading, must strictly observe the 
rules of Prosody, and yet, at the same time, distinguish ev- 
ery accented long vowel from an unaccented one ; without, 
however, marring the quantity of the former. Thus, in eh>- 
6pG)TTog he must make the first syllable more audible than 
the rest, and yet keep the middle syllable long, just as in 
the English words grandfather, alms-basket. 1 

1. For farther remarks on Accent, consult Appendix IV, where 
more special rules are given. 



PUNCTUATION. 



15 



NAMES GIVEN TO WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR ACCENTS. 

I. Words receive the following appellations according to 
the accentuation which they have ; and it is to be observed 
that all these names have reference to the condition of the 
last syllable of the word. Thus, the word is called 

Oxyton, when the last syllable has the acute ; as, dpyrj, 

Perispomenon, when the last syllable is circumflexed ; 
as, tcatctig. 

Barytone, when the last syllable is unaccented, and, 
consequently, has the grave tone (fiapvv rovov): as, 
irpayiia. 

Paroxyton, when the penult has the acute ; as, tvtttg). 
Proparoxyton, when the third syllable from the end has 

the acute ; as, avOpG)noc. 
Properispomenon, when the penult is circumflexed ; as, 



VII. PUNCTUATION. 

I. The Greeks, before the Alexandrean period of their literature, 
had no punctuation ; the words were written with uncial, that is, 
capital letters, and in uninterrupted succession ; and it was left to 
the reader to distinguish the sense by pauses of the voice. 1 Thus, 

EIXONAEIIANTE2KPANHXAAKAKAIXITS2NA2. 
(i. e.) y elxov 61 ttuvtec Kpdvrj %a?nta Kal x LT ^ )vac - 

II. This mode of writing was continued in inscriptions even to the 

$. The Orientals wrote, as is well known, from right to left ; with 
the Greeks, on the other hand, the direction from left to right ob- 
tained the preference, clearly for the sake of a propitious direction 
(ominis causa). Before, however, this latter mode was adopted, it 
was customary to write with both directions alternately, or in the 
way called ftovorpotyndov, i. e., turning like oxen in the process of 
ploughing, first from left to right, and then from right to left. Spe- 
cimens of this mode of writing are found in both the Sigaean in- 
scriptions ; these inscriptions, however, being nothing more than 
mere imitations of antiquity, as Bceckh has conclusively shown. 
(Corpus Inscript, Grac, i., 1, p. 19.) 



1G 



PUNCTUATION. 



latest periods, though varied occasionally by dots between each 
word, excepting the article, conjunction, and preposition. Thus, 

Inscription at Tanagra. 1 
ElK0NATHNAEANE9HKE$0PY2TA2nAI20TPIAK02 : 

which, when written in the cursive character, becomes eltcova rrjvde 

uvednne Qopvorae, irate 'OrplaKoc. 

Inscription at Athens. 2 
OIIIAYNH2 : NTM*AI2 : ETHAMENOI : ANE0E2AN : 
KAI9E012 : HA21N : Z12APOPA2 : ZftKYIIPOY, &c, 

which reads as follows: ol nhvvijc . vvfc<paic . ev^afievoi . avkdtaav 

nal Qeolc . ttclglv . Zoayopac . ZoKVTcpov, &c, 

III. It was not till the conflux of strangers at Alexandrea began 
to impair the purity of the Greek language, that Aristophanes the 
grammarian invented three marks by which to denote the divisions 
of discourse. These were, 

1. 7] Te?iela oTiyfirj, a point placed at the top of the last letter of 
a word, to denote the complete close of the sense. 

2. i] fiean Gnyjiih a point in the middle of the last letter, marking 
a proposition only partly finished, to be completed by another 
member beginning with a pronoun or a conjunction. 

3. vnoGTiyfir), a point at the lower end of the last letter, to de- 
note a proposition the sense of which is incomplete or sus- 
pended. 

IV. These marks; however, appear not to have come into general 
use till a later period, and their form and place were changed. The 
releia GTtyfiy was placed, like our full stop, under the last letter, at 
the close of a proposition : a mark like our comma took the place of 
the viroGTiypLTj : and the point at the top remained as /xiarj GTiy{ir}, or 
colon. 

Y. The system of punctuation last mentioned is found in the old- 
est manuscripts ; and in those of the ninth century the interrogation 
(;) is added. The parenthesis ( ) and dash — , and very lately the 
note of admiration, have been added in modern times. 

SUMMARY. 

I. For a period and comma the same signs are employed in Greek 
as in English. 

II. The colon and semicolon have one and the same mark, namely, 
a dot or point above the line ; as, krvfyTiuoe fie' nal rvfyXoe el/nc 



1. Rose, Inscript. Grac, p. 308. 



2. Ibid., p. 321. 



PUNCTUATION. 



17 



III. A sign of interrogation has this form (;), as, tl rovro ; It is 
the same in appearance as our English semicolon, and not unlike 
our mark of interrogation inverted. 

IV. No sign of exclamation occurs in the older editions, yet, after 
terms indicative of feeling, it is well to put the one in use among us ; 
as, u fioi, tg)v Trapovrov KanCyv ! <l>ev ! 6tv ! 

V. A diceresis, or sign of separation, is put when two vowels that 
follow in succession are not to be read as a diphthong, but separate- 
ly. It is indicated by two dots placed horizontally over the second 
one of the two vowels ; and if the accent fall on that same vowel, 
the accentual mark is placed between the two dots. Thus, aidfe, 
(to be pronounced a-idrjc) : npavc, (to be pronounced rcpa-vc). 

VI. Diastole or hypodiastole has the same sign as the comma, and 
is used in certain small compound words, to distinguish them from 
others ; as, b,ri (" whatever," formed from boric), for distinction' 
sake, from ore, "that;" and o,re f "which also," for distinction 7 
sake, from ore, "when." 

In place, however, of the diastole or hypodiastole, most of the 
more recent editions have merely the syllables of such words sep- 
arated, and without the inserted mark ; as, '6 tl and 6 re, instead of 
6,ri and o,re. This method is attended with less interruption than 
the other, and is, at the same time, equally perspicuous. 

VII. An apostrophe (') is used when a short vowel is dropped at 
the end of a word, because the following word begins with a vowel ; 
as, £71-* kue, for etti kfie : a7r' ekeivov, for citto ekeivov. 

VIII. There are also certain marks used by critics and editors, 
which deserve to be mentioned. These are, 

1. Brackets, shaped as follows [ ], and called in Latin uncini. 
They are used to inclose words or clauses of doubtful au- 
thenticity, and for which new readings have been proposed. 

2. The Obelus (66ea6c), shaped like a t, or — , and placed before 
a verse, to show that there is something critically objection- 
able or suspicious about it. 

3. The Asterisk (aarEpicKoc), of which one or more, * or ***, 
are employed to indicate some gap or lacuna in the text. 

B2 



18 



DIALECT-CHANGES. 



CHAPTER II. 

CHANGES OF LETTERS. 

I. DIALECT-CHANGES. 1 

I. The Greek language, like every modern one, was not 
in ancient times spoken in the same manner in all parts of 
Greece ; but almost every place had its peculiarities of dia- 
lect, both in the use of single letters and of single words, 
in the forms of words, inflections, and expressions, in the 
whole style, in the species of verse, and in the quantity. 

II. The principal dialects of the Greek language are 
four, the Molic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic. 

III. The iEolic retained the most numerous traces of the 
early Greek, and hence the Latin coincides more nearly 
with this than with the other dialects. It was distinguish- 
ed from the Doric by trifling differences ; chiefly, however, 
by the use of the Digamma ; whereas the digamma was 
gradually dropped by the Doric and other dialects. 

IV. The Doric was hard, rough, and broad, particularly 
from the frequent use of a for rj and o) ; as, a X&Oa, for rj 
XrjOrj : rav nopdv, for tg)v /toptiv : and from the use of two 
consonants, where the other Greeks employed the double 
consonants ; as, ixeXtaderat for fieXt^erai : which was also 
the custom in iEolic. It was rudest among the Spartans, 
the enemies of all change, and was spoken in its greatest 
purity by the Messenians. 

V. The Ionic was the softest of all the dialects, on ac- 
count of the frequent meeting of vowels, and the rejection 
of aspirated letters. Thus, they said ttolsg) for itolg) : tvtt- 
reo for tvtttov : 6k,Ko\iai for dexofiai : dnaipeG) for d(f>atpso), 
i. e., d(pcupG). Hence, also, it is fond of the hiatus, or con- 

1. For a more historical view of the Dialects, consult Appen- 
dix III. 



DIALECT-CHANGES. 



19 



fluence of vowel sounds, against which the Attic so care- 
fully guards. 

VI. The Attic was the most polished dialect, and forms 
the basis of our ordinary grammars. It avoided the colli- 
sion of vowel sounds, and was, therefore, fond of contrac- 
tions. It differed from the Ionic by using the long a, 
where the Ionians employed the rj after a vowel, or the 
letter p, and by preferring the consonants with an aspirate, 
which the Ionians rejected. It employed, also, in its later 
stages, the double pp instead of the old pa, and the double 
tt instead of the hissing go. 

VII. Of the primitive language of the Greeks the most numerous 
traces are left to us in their Epic poems, the oldest monuments of the 
language of this people. The peculiar mode of speech observed in 
these is called the Epic Dialect. Its basis was the old national lan- 
guage of the Greeks, which the poet, however, for his own purpose, 
variously modified and enriched. Its principal characteristics are, 
a rhythmical harmony, and a powerful fullness of tone. 

VIII. The Epic Dialect is expressed most purely, and in a perfect 
form, in the poems of Homer and Hesiod. Later poets formed 
themselves according to the model of these two, particularly of 
Homer. 

IX. It is idle to talk of ^Eolic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic forms of 
expression in the poetry of Homer. The basis of the Epic dialect 
was the primitive language of the Greeks, containing the germs of 
all the dialects as subsequently developed ; and therefore the Epic 
mode of expression evinces divers traits of all the peculiarities, 
which afterward were individually cultivated and retained in the 
single dialects. 

X. The earliest Greek bards merely selected, according to their 
wants, from the variety of actual forms which they found already 
existing. Many of these forms became obsolete in common usage ; 
but the later poet, who had these old bards before his eyes, was not 
disposed to yield his right to these treasures, but carefully retained 
them. 

XI. The Common Dialect is, in fact, a corruption of the Attic. 
Athens had for a long time continued the chief seat of liberal infor- 
mation ; and the Attic dialect, as the purest and most diffused, be- 
came the court language at a later period, when the Macedonians 



20 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



overthrew the liberties of Greece, and by degrees the general lan- 
guage of writing and of the people. Hence it necessarily followed 
that much of the old peculiarity of this dialect was sacrificed, and 
many innovations introduced in form and inflection. This language, 
formed on the basis of the Attic dialect, is comprehended under the 
name of the Common or Hellenic Dialect. 

XII. In Macedonia, the Greek language was mingled with much 
foreign alloy ; and thus corrupted, it spread itself, with the exten- 
sion of the Macedonian empire, over other barbaric nations. Hence 
arose what may be termed the Macedonic Dialect. 

XIII. Alexandrea was a colony of liberal information under the 
Macedonian rulers. There a circle of learned men assembled to- 
gether, and made it their chief study to preserve the purity of the 
genuine Attic dialect, by rejecting all modern accessions, although 
their style also fell short of the ancient models. This is called by 
some, though by no means correctly, the Alexandrean Dialect. 

XIV. But the Greek language underwent a peculiar reformation 
by the translators of the Old, and the authors of the New Testa- 
ment, who designated by Greek expressions things of Oriental con- 
ception and application. As this style occurs only in the Scriptures 
and some Christian writers, it has been called the Ecclesiastical 
Dialect, while others have preferred the epithet of Hellenistic. 



II. EUPHONIC CHANGES. 

I. The Greeks, in the formation of their words, had par- 
ticular regard to Euphony, or harmony and ease of pronun- 
ciation. 

II. Hence they endeavored to avoid, as well the meeting 
of vowels of separate pronunciation, as the concurrence of 
consonants which were difficult to be enunciated together. 

III. The modes in which they sought to accomplish this 
were various : namely, either by blending different sounds 
together, or by changing one sound into another of kindred 
origin, or by rejecting an existing sound entirely, or by in- 
troducing a new one. 

IV. All these changes divide themselves into two great 
classes, namely, Changes of Vowels and Changes of Conso- 
nants. 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



21 



1. VOWEL-CHANGES. 



I. The most usual mode for avoiding trie accumulation of 
vowels is the blending of two or more of them into one long 
vowel or diphthong. 

II. This blending takes place, either in the body of a 
word ; as, c/)lXe-g), contracted <f)LX& : %pvGe-og, contracted 
Xpvoovc : a-oidrj, contracted (bdrj : or else it occurs in the 
case of two words coming together, the first of which ends 
with a vowel, and the second begins with one ; as, rd efid. 
contracted rapd : nai eyoj, contracted Kaycj : rd ovopa, 
contracted rovvofia. 

III. In the former case it is called Synceresis; in the 
latter, Crasis. 



I. There are two kinds of Synasresis, namely, Proper 
and Improper. 

II. A Proper Synceresis is when two vowels are con- 
tracted into a diphthong or long vowel that comprehends 
or contains them both. Thus, 



e 


i 


into el ; 


as, teixel, contracted 


teIxsi. 





i 


" oi ; 


" al&GL, 


ti 


atdol. 


a 


i 


" at ; 


" yrjpa'i, 


a 


yrjpai, 


V 


i 


" v i 




U 


Qprjaaa. 


(x) 


i 


" <»; 


" Xtdioroq, 


it 


A(l)<JrOC. 


V 


i 


" vi ; 


" vsfcv'i, 


u 


vetcvi (Epic). 


a 


a 


" a; 


" osXaa, 


« 


ceXgl. 


I 


I 


" t) 


" Xuoc, 




Xloc. 


V 


V 


and v v 


undergo no contraction. 



III. An Improper Synceresis is of four kinds. 

First. When two vowels, which do not form a diph- 
thong, are changed into a kindred long sound. 



OF SYNCERESIS. 




TLfiaouEv, contracted ti\iC)\lev. 
aldoa, " aidC). 

pio067]TE, " fll0Q(x>TE. 



22 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



8 8 

O 

O 8 

e o 



e a into tj ; as, recxsa, contracted re^?/. 
But when a vowel precedes a, then 

8 a into a ; as, /cAeea, contracted icXia. 

81 ; " 7T0188, " 1X0181. 

llLo660jJ,8V, " \L10~Q0V\L8V . 

ov ; " [iLoOoe, " fiiodov. 

7T0180{18V, " TtOlOV\L8V. 

Secondly. When a long vowel, or a diphthong, comes 
in contact with a short vowel that either goes before 
or comes after, and the short vowel is absorbed by it. 

In the case of w, however, this absorption of the 
short vowel only takes place when the latter comes 
after, except in the accusative of some substantives 
of the third declension ; as, T/pcoa, contracted rjpo). 
Thus, 



<f)t?L8yig, contr. (j)iXqg. 



vXrjeooa, contr. vXr\aaa. 



TLfjiao), ** Tifjicj. Xaag, " Xdg. 

Tlfld,G)fl8V, " Tl\lQ>\L8V. <\>lk80l\ll, " (biXolfit. 

(ptXiov, " (piXov. jjiiodoovot, " iitaOovGi. 
(ModooijM, " \Liadol\ii. (jlioQoov, " fiioOov. 
nXoov, " 7rAoi). dirXoat, " dnXal. 

Thirdly. When a, £, as short vowels, come in 
contact with another vowel, and, receiving this into 
their own sound, become long. Thus, 




into a ; as 



TLfjidrjT8, 

V noXiag, 

ixOvag, 

XeXviro, 

6etKVvrjrai; 



contr. 



rifia. 
i iroXlg (Ionic). 

\ V - 

ixOvq. 

XiXvro. 

deifcvvrai. 



Fourthly. When a simple vowel comes in contact 
with a diphthong, this vowel unites into one sound 
with the first vowel of the diphthong, according to 
the rules previously laid down, and the third vowel, 
if an t, is written under a, rj, o) ; but if not an c, it is 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



23 



absorbed, without any farther change, into the new 
sound produced. Thus, 

a XI I • f S contracted rtfiag. 

/ into cl i as, \ / ,, ~ 

a u ) 1 ' ' £ Ttfiaei, " rifia. 

a oi " (*) ; " ti\l6loi\ii, " TifitifM. 

a ov " (»; ; " rifidov, " r^w. 

e <u " 7/ ; " Tvnreai, " rvimrj. 

e ov I a \ u S noieovot, 44 noiovat. 



o ov $ 01; ' ^ fuodoovoi, " iiiodovoi 

Remark. Sometimes, as, for example, in the 2d person of the 
Present and Imperfect of Contracted Verbs in aw, «j, 6cj. the case 
occurs where two short vowels and a diphthong meet, or else three 
single vowels, of which neither the first forms a diphthong with the 
second, nor the second with the third. When this happens, the last 
two vowels are blended into a diphthong, and then this diphthong 
is contracted with the preceding vowel, according to the rules that 
have been laid down. Thus, 

note-ecu — noie-y — rroiy. I rifid-eat = Tifid-y s= Tifia. 
krroLe-eo = enoU-ov = enoiov. \ kfiio66-eo — e^iioOo-ov == kfiiadov. 

Besides the contractions that have been thus far men- 
tioned, we have the following special ones : 

' £ into o£ * as \ fMcOoxi, contracted fiioOot. 

O EL \ ' ' ( [MOdOEl, " \LloQol. 

o et " ov ; " (iigOoeiVi " [iiodovv. 

Remark. The ground of the contraction of oy and oei into oi is to 
be found in this, that c forms an essential element in the inflexion of 
the Indicative present and the Subjunctive. — The contraction of oec 
into ov occurs only in the infinitive active of verbs in 6cj (where the 
ground of the contraction is, that the infinitive originally ended in 
ev, not in eiv), and in a few adjectives in oeic ; as, 'OnSetc, contract- 
ed 'Ottovc, in which, in like manner, the l does not belong to the 
stem. For similar reasons, we write the infinitive active of verbs 
in au without the subscript i ; as, riftdeiv = Ti}j.av, not rifidv. 

OF CRASIS. 

I. Crasis, as before remarked, is the blending or mixing 
together (fcpaotg) of two vowels belonging to two different 
words that come in contact with each other, the first of 
which words ends with a vowel, and the second begins 



24 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



with one ; as, to ovofia = rovvofia : to enog — rovnog. 
The employment of Crasis is chiefly confined to the poets. 

II. The sign of Crasis is like that of the soft breathing, 
and is called Cordnis. The Coronis takes its place above 
the blended sound formed by Crasis, and when this is a 
diphthong, above the second vowel ; but it is omitted when 
the word begins with the blended sound ; as, rd dyadd =z 
rdyadd : to evavriov — rovvavriov ; but a dv — dv, for 
the breathing must then be marked in its place. 

III. The Iota subscript is only used in Crasis when the 
i belongs to the latter of the two sounds thus merged into 
one ; or, in other words, when the second of the two sounds 
thus brought in contact contains an i ; as, Kal elra = Kara : 
eycb olda — eyd>da : but Kal errsLra = Kairetra : al dyadai 
== dyadai : ol dvdpeg = dvdpeg. 

IV. Syllables formed by Crasis are always long ; where- 
as a syllable contracted by elision is not necessarily so, but 
only continues long in case the second word begins with a 
long vowel, or a diphthong; as, rd aXXa — raXXa; but 
aA/L' aye ; to avro == ravro. 

V. If, in the process of contraction, a mute is brought 
before an aspirated vowel, the mute is also aspirated ; as, 
tov vdarog = dovdarog : to Ipanov = ftolaaTiov. 



OTHER EXAMPLES. 



Kac rj = xf 
Kal rj^ec = xV% et - 
Kal al = %al. 
Kal 6 = x(h. 
Kal ol = x&- 



Kai oaa = ^wcra. 

Kal bang = x& arL S- 

Kal OTTCJg = ^(JTTtoC. 

Kal 6 *A&ov£c == x&dtovig. 
Kal i] ayxovaa — x^jyx ovaa " 



VI. In forming Crasis, the rules of contraction already- 
given are generally observed. 

VII. Crasis occurs most frequently with the article ; but 
when this takes place, the vowel of the genitive, dative, and 
accusative forms is dropped; as, tov dvdpog — rdvdpog : 
to) dvdpi — rdvdpi : tov airov — ravrov. And when a 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



25 



follows, even 6 and oi disappear ; as, 6 avrjp — avrjp : oi 
dvdpeg — dvdpec. 

VIII. The forms of the article that terminate in a, o, ov, 
<*). oj, o£, and at, when joined in crasis with the correspond- 
ing parts of erepog, become blended with the initial vowel 
of the latter into long a. Thus, 

rd erepa =r ddrepa. j oi erepoi = arepoi. 

rep erepct) = Sdrepy. ai erepai == drepai. 

6 erepog = arepog* rov erepov =± •&&repo&. 

This unusual change of the vowel-sound arises from the 
circumstance that, besides erepog, the form arepog existed 
also in the ancient language ; and hence, without doubt, we 
ought to write krepa for rj erepa, and $drepa for erepa,, 
instead of the usual forms ijrepa, $7]repa. 

IX. In the conjunction Kal, the diphthong at is in certain 
cases absorbed by another diphthong that comes after ; as, 
Kal el = /eel : Kal elg = Kelg : teal 7}X6ov — ktjaOov : Kal 
ov kov : Kal evdaiuuv — Kevdaifiuv. 1 

OF SYNIZESIS. 

I. Synizesis (gvvi&jois) is the union in pronunciation of two vow- 
els written separate. 

H. It is properly nothing more than a crasis not designated in 
writing, but left to the will of the reader, and is found only in poetry. 

III. Synizesis occurs, with the Attics, in the combination of cer- 
tain words only, particularly in ov, rj ov, etteI ov, kyco ov, and u7j 
eidevai. 

IV. In the Epic dialect, however, it is very frequent, not only in 
the combination of two words, whereof one ends and the other 
begins with a vowel, but also in the middle of words, particularly 
with e before a long vowel ; as, TLrfoqi&dEu, pronounced Urf/^'iddo) : 
Xpvaio), pronounced Xpvcfi. 

V. Synizesis, in Epic writers, occurs also with e before a short 
vowel ; as, uypeov, pronounced fypovv (II., xi., 282) ; orf/dea, pro- 
nounced (jrrjda (lb.). 

OF ELISION. 

I. Another mode of avoiding the accumulation of vowels 

I. For other examples of Crasis, consult Kiihner, I. p. 33. 
C 



26 



EUPHONIC CHANGES, 



is by means of Elision ; that is, by the rejection of a short 
rowel at the end of a word, when the next following begins 
with a vowel. To designate this, use is made of the sign 
named Apostrophe (') ; as, arf ifiov, for and z\iov. 

II. The mark of the Apostrophe, however, is omitted in 
composition ; as, dnepxofiai, not dnspxopai. 

III. When the following word has the rough breathing, 
and the elided vowel was preceded by a smooth mute, this 
mute becomes aspirated ; as, d0' ov, for and ov. But a 
rough breathing has no effect on the particles ye and 6e, 
since such a change would affect perspicuity. 

IV. The vowels elided by Apostrophe are a, e, i, o, but 
not v. And for these more special rules will presently be 
given. 

V. The employment of Elision, like that of Crasis, is 
chiefly confined to the poets ; since, by the suppression of 
vowels, it evidently hurts, in some degree, distinctness of 
expression ; and it is, therefore, only used in prose in the 
case of certain words and combinations of words ; where- 
as, on other occasions among the prose writers, even the 
slenderest sounds remain open. 

VI. Elision takes place in prose chiefly in the. following cases : x 
1. In the Prepositions that end with a vowel, excepting nepi 

and Ttpo : as, 6C oIkov, &if olkov, art olkov : but nepl oIkov, npb 
olkov. The same remark applies to prepositions in composi- 
tion ; as, die/idetv, e-nelBelv, except that afupl in some com- 
pounds is not subjected to elision ; as, ap^iakog, apcpeno), and 
a/z0££7r6> : afjLfyrjKrjc and u/Kpirjuyg. 

The final vowel of irpo in composition coalesces, however, 
with the augment and with the initial vowel of the following 
word, and oe and oo are contracted into ov ; as, Trpovrvipev for 
jrpoETvipev : TrpovTrroc. for Tipoo-Toc. 

I. In all the cases here cited, however, it should be borne in mind 
that Elision is suspended whenever the purposes of emphasis, per- 
spicuity, or euphony are to be subserved. Thus, in the expression 
Kvpog 6e. r/Gdrj (Xen., Anal., i., 2, 18), " Gyrus, however, was delight- 
ed," 6i remains unelided, because emphatic ; and so of other pas- 
sag^o. 



EUPHONIC CHANGE3. 



27 



2. The final vowel is sometimes elided in £veica, but not often. 

3. Elision takes place in the particles dWd, dpa and apa, 
elra, iva, fidXa, ye, Te, de, and the compound particles formed 
from it ; as, ovde, firjde : also in ttote, and its compounds ; as, 
ovirore, fiTjirore, and the like ; and, lastly, in en, ovuen, {iqnen : 
as, dXX' eyu, dp' ovv ; elf epcjTag, Iv 1 rjv, [idX dv, y 1 ovdev, for 
dXTid eyd), apa ovv, elra epcjrag, Iva f]v. fidTia dv, ye ovdev, &c. 

4. In the Pronominal forms in a, o, e ; as, ravra, tolclvto, 
navra, dXka, riva ; Tcorepa (though more seldom) ; tovto, avro, 
e/ie, ae (never to and to), and as above remarked in all to which 
de is appended ; as, ode, Toaogde, and the like ; as, ravr' avTu, 
Trdvf dyadd, Tzavd' baa, &c. 

5. In eon, (pyfil, olda, oloda, and other familiar expressions 
of frequent occurrence in common life ; as, eod' birov, fn^ b/u, 
old' on, olod' apa, for eon birov, (pTj/ul ey6, olda on, olaBa apa. 

6. In the plural termination a of neuters, and in the verbal 
terminations in e and o ; as, /ca/c' epya, yevoir' dv, for /ca«d epya, 
yevoLTO dv. 

VII. With regard to elision among the poets, the following par- 
ticulars may be noticed : 

1. Any word ending in a short vowel, except v, can undergo 
elision ; but the vowels a, i, o, were never elided by the Attic 
poets in monosyllables. Homer, on the other hand, commonly 
elides pd. 

2. The a in dva, when this stands for dvdcTTjdi, is an excep- 
tion to the preceding, and is never elided. And in dva for dva!;, 
it is elided only once. 

3. According to Elmsley, the e is not cut off in the third per- 
son before dv, and the manuscripts are at variance with this 
doctrine only in a single passage. In other cases, however, 
this e is often cut off by the poets. 

4. The i of the dative singular and plural of the third de- 
clension suffers elision very seldom among the Attic poets ; 
more frequently with Homer, and yet even in the latter only 
when no ambiguity of meaning can possibly arise therefrom ; 
as, T6j opvtO' 'Odvaevg. 

5. The l is never elided in on and irept, either in the Attic 
poets and prose writers, or in Homer. But nspt is elided by 
the iEolians and in Pindar ; as, nepodog, nepdirnd. 

6. The i is never elided in the Epic eaai, nor in adverbs of 
place ending in &i. Neither does the o in to ever suffer elision. 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



7. The o in npo coalesces with the augment, and with the 
initial vowel of the following word, as already mentioned in the 
remarks on the prose writers. Thus, irpovrvxev for npoervxev : 
npovTzrog for npoonTog. This contraction, however, is more fre- 
quent in the case of the augment than in that of the initial 
vowel. Thus, we do not find npovdpoq for Trpoedpoe, nor npovp- 
XO[iai for izpoepxofJLat. 

8. The vowel is not cut off in the genitive endings — olo and 
— ao, where it would have been absurd to choose the longer 
form, and then shorten it by elision. 

9. In digammated words elision is regularly omitted in com- 
position ; as, diaelderai, kmavddvei, anoeiTre, &c. This is also 
the case with some words in the Attic and later language ; as, 
eTTuaaadat, kmeucTjg, kiriopKOt;. 

10. The diphthong at is elided in Homer in the 1st and 3d 
persons singular of the present, and in the infinitive present 
and second aorist middle, but not in the third person of the op- 
tative, or in the first aorist infinitive active, nor in the nomina- 
tive plural of the first declension. 

The verbal endings (iai, cat, tclc, cdai, on the other hand, 
were seldom elided by the Attic poets, and probably only by 
the Comic writers. Thus, Aristoph., Nub., 780, KalelaO^ «tt- 
ay^aifirjv. 

11. Of the elision of the diphthong oi only one sure instance 
can be found in Homer, namely, IL, 6, 165 : bq /a' £0£? v ev (pilo- 
ttjtl fuyrjfiEvat. The other passages w 7 here it is supposed to 
occur are either critically suspicious, or else admit of a differ- 
ent syntactical explanation. — The Attics elided ol only in olfi' 
for olfioi, before o, but not in /xoc and col. In tol and fievrot, ol 
forms a long a with the following a ; as, fievrav for /llevtol uv. 

12. When the first word ends with a long vowel, or diph- 
thong, and the second begins with a short vowel, this latter is 
elided in the Attic poets (not in Homer or Pindar) ; as, ttov 
'gtiv for ttov kariv ; ''Epfirj 'fj-nolaJe for 'Epfiij hfiTzoAale. And in 
prose writers, also, w 'ya6s for u dyade. 

13. In diphthongs, also, the first short vowel is cut off after a 
long one in the preceding word ; as, y 'vaeSeta for t) evaeBzia : 
im f° r Fi ffyow. This occurs chiefly after tj. 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



29 



OF MOVABLE CONSONANTS AT THE END OF A WORD. 

T. Another means of avoiding the concurrence of two 
vowels in two successive words consists in affixing a con- 
sonant to the final vowel of the first word. 1 

II. The consonants employed for this purpose are v, a, 
and fc. 

III. The v thus used is termed v ktyeXuvoTticov, and is so 
called from its being supposed to draw, as it were, the two 
vowels unto itself, and, consequently, unto one another. 

IV. The v ecpeXfcvoTLftov is added as follows : 

1. To the dative plural in <u, and, consequently, in 
%i and ; as, rrdatv eXsga — (pvXa^tv stcetvoig — v Ap- 
aipLV avroig. 

2. To the third person of verbs in e or i ; as, ervn- 
rev — rlOrjoiv avrov — Xeyovoiv opdtig. 

3. To the numeral etfcooi, " twenty," and to the 
adverbs Tiepvoi, navrdnaai, voo<pL, npoods, fee, vv : as, 
Eitcooiv avdpeg — npoadev aXXuv — ttitv dyrj, &c. 

4. To the demonstrative i sometimes, but only when 
o precedes ; as, ovroacv — shelvooLv — tovtovglv — ov- 

T(*)OLV. 

5. To the Epic suffix <j>t ; as, evvrjcptv — arparocpiv. 

Remark 1. In the Epic language the adverbs of place in tiev 
sometimes throw away the v kty&KVGTiKov, but very seldom in the 
Attic poets and prose writers. 

Remark 2. The poets sometimes employ this v before a conso- 
nant, in order to make a short syllable long by position. This let- 
ter is also generally added in most measures to the end of a verse. 
In Attic prose it stands regularly at the end of entire sections and 
books, and sometimes before the longer marks of punctuation. Nay, 

1. We have adopted here the popular language of grammars. In 
truth, however, the consonants that are here said to be added would 
seem to have been original elements of words, thrown out in some 
cases by the tendency of the language to rid itself of consonant- 
sounds, and retained in others. The popular doctrine of the v k<j>e\- 
kvgtikov will remind the English reader of the old-fashioned mode 
of accounting in English grammar for a before a consonant, &c, 
and an before a vowel, and is equally erroneous with it. 

C2 



30 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



at times it is even employed, for emphasis' sake, as in ^Eschines 
(c. Ctes., § 3, p. 297, ed. Bremi), Kplvovciv OEOLyrjraL, k. t. X. 

Remark 3. The Ionic prose rejects, of course, the v tyelnvaiKov, 
that dialect being fond of the concurrence of vowel sounds ; as, 
Truer c ele^a. 

Remark 4. In Homer, eIkogl never has the final i>, but suffers 
elision before a vowel. On the other hand, the form eelkogl takes 
the v. 

V. The letter q is sometimes found at the end of words, 
on the same principle as the v ecfyeXnvarifcov. It is ap- 
pended to ovtg), as ovro)g eTTOLrjasv : and frequently to &xpi 
and : as, a%pLq ov, fi£XP L $ oaov. 

It is also joined to the preposition etc, when this comes 
before a vowel, or at the end of a clause, or before a pause 
in the sense ; and then converts it into e% \i. e., sag) ; as, 
et~ efiov, nafttiv ei; : but m rovrov, en rrjg elprjvrjg. — So in 
composition, et-sXavveiv, e^ayetpscv : but enfyspeiv, kuTTEfi- 

TTEIV. 

VI. In like manner, k is appended to the negative parti- 
cle ov when a vowel comes after ; and, if that vowel have 
a rough breathing, then the a changes to % ; as, ova evea- 
tiv, ovx vrrsartv. When, however, this particle stands at 
the end of a clause, or when there is a pause required by 
the sense, the n is not added : rovro 6' ov. " But this not." 
Ov • aXK orav—. " No : but when—." 

OF THE HIATUS. 

I. Even after all this care to prevent the accumulation of vowel- 
sounds, cases occur where a word which ends with a vowel is fol- 
lowed by another which begins with a vowel. 

II. This is called Hiatus (xaofiudla), because the lips cannot then 
be closed at the end of the first word. 

III. Hiatus is of two kinds, Proper and Improper. 

IV. The proper Hiatus takes place when the final vowel is short, 
or when a long one, or a diphthong, is not shortened ; as, Kade&ro 
km yfjc : tev^ei uaKrjaag (II., Xtv., 240). 

V. 'the improper Hiatus takes place when a final long vowel or 
diphthong is shortened ; as, (poird ava Trpo/idxovg : (lellti err el, &c. 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



31 



VI. The improper Hiatus is very common in Homer, and the other 
Epic and Elegiac as well as Lyric poets. The tragedians admit it 
n the lyric parts of their dramas, but never in Iambic, Trochaic, 
ind Cretic verses, except in the case of tl ; as, ri ovv ; ri elneg ; l 

VII. The proper Hiatus has been in most cases removed from the 
Homeric poems, and from Pindar, by the doctrine of the Digamma, 
and by the theory of the Arsis, or stress of the voice. The improper 
Hiatus belongs, in strictness, to the subject of Prosody, and will 
there be more fully considered. 

VIII. In the prose writers there is no certain rule by which to 
distinguish when they allowed or avoided hiatus. The manuscripts 
vary, and there is hardly an instance of Apostrophe where the word 
is not written at length in other manuscripts, and vice versa. The 
ancients blamed the excessive care with which Isocrates and his 
scholars avoided the collision of vowels, while Thucydides and 
Plato readily admitted it, and by this means gave their discourse 
something sonorous and full. 

2. CONSONANT CHANGES. 

I. In the concurrence of two or more consonants, the fol- 
lowing general rule prevails : 

Rule. In formation and flexion, mutes of the same 
class must come together. 

II. As has already been remarked, there are three classes 
of mutes ; namely, the smooth, n, tc,r ; the middle, /3, y, d ; 
and the aspirates, <2>, %, $. 

III. When, therefore, in inflexion, or formation, mutes of 
different classes come together, the first is changed into 
one of the same class as the second, and hence we have 
the following special rules : 

Rule 1. 

A P. sound (n, j3, </>), or a K-sound (/£, y, %), before a T- 
sound (r, d\ #), must be of the same class as the T-sound ; 
that is, 7r or & is to be joined to t, (3 or y to 6, and or % to #. 2 

1. The Comic writers have the hiatus in on and wept : as, on eg, 
otl ovx' L '• 7re P { ' vfttiv : and in ovde ei<; : ovSe ev : pride eig : pi]6e ev, ne 
unus quidem ; and so, also, in prose, to distinguish from ovdeig, nul- 
lus, &c. 

2. When, for example, from the verb leyo a verbal adjective in 



32 



EUPHONIC CHANGED. 



Thus y 

before r becomes tf ; as, (fr. rpidw) Terpi6-rai 
f " r 44 7T ; 44 (fr. ypdtyu) yeypap-Tcu 



: TerpLTcrai. 

- yiypaTcrat- 

- TieTiEKTat. 

- pi&peKTau 

- pdftdog. 

- ypdddrjv. 

- TcTieydrjv. 

- (Spsydrfv. 

- knztJLtydrjv. 

- krpL^Qrjv. 

- kirkexdriv. 



y 44 t i( - k ; 44 (fr. ?usy(*>) "kiley-rai 

X " r " /c ; " (fr. PpEx^) ftsSpex-TdL 

<rc « S " /3; 44 (fr. PAH.) ^Tr-cSof 

$ 44 d " /? ; " (fr. ypd$o>) ypd(p-d?jv 

k u 6 44 y ; 44 (fr. 77/le/co) tt?leic-S7]v 

X " " 7 5 " (fr- Ppfyu) ppex-dv v 

it 44 # 44 ^ ; " (fr. 7T£|W7T6>) ETTEjLLTT-dr^ 

ft 44 # " ^; " (fr. rpifo) hpi6-6r/v 

m " & u ^ ; " (fr. nTiEHCd) knTiEK-drjv 

y u 46 ; 44 (fr- 3iyw) ehey-Qrtv 

Exception. In composition, however, the preposition e/c remains 
unchanged before r, (5, $ ; and hence we have £K.did6vat % kKdrivat, 
&c, not kydidovat,, kx@Eivac. 

Rule 2 

The smooth mutes (tt, ^ r), before an aspirate breathing, 
are changed into their kindred aspirates (0, $), not only 
in inflexion and formation, but also in separate words ; the 
middle mutes (j3 r y, (5), however, undergo change only in 
the inflexion of verbs ; thus, we change 

air' ov into aft ov. 

in^fiEpoc (fr. £7TL y ypipa) 44 ktyrjfxepoQ. 

iTrv^aivcj (fr. km, vtyaivo) 44 Efyvtyaivo). 

TETVTT-d u TETVpCL. 

OVK-OGLOQ 44 OVX OGliOf* 

dEKqpepoc (fr. dsKa^fiEpa} 44 dsxwep&Q* 

uvt' <av (fr. aim, up) 44 cli^' aw. 

avTeTiicu (fr. &1/cgj) 44 uvOeTiko^ 

ukoy-d> 64 el?iox&. 

T€Tpt6-d 44 TSTp'lpG. 

But Aey ? krepav, not Ae^' srepav* 

reof is to be formed, this last can not be written lEyrEoc, because 
here the middle y comes in contact with the smooth r. The middle 
y, therefore, must pass over into a /c-sound, which is of the same 
class with r, and therefore y must change to k, and the result will 
be 'Aekteoc. Compare scribo with scriptus ; lego with lectus £ where 
script us and lectus are changed from scribtus and legtus,. 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



33 



Remark I. This change also takes place in Crasis ; as, darepa, 
from rd erepa. And even when a vowel intervenes before the aspi- 
rated vowel ; as. ftol/idtiov, from to ifidriov. 

Remark 2. If two smooth mutes precede an aspirate, they must 
both be changed into aspirates ; as, t^Orifxepog instead of enrvfiepog 
(from eiTTd, yfiepa) : vvxQ' okriv instead of vvkt 1 o?it]v. 

Remark 3. In some compounds the aspirated p changes the pre- 
ceding smooth into an aspirate ; as, QpotfLtov, from Trpoolfiiov (from 
Trpo and olfior): redpiTrnov, from rirpa (i. e., Terrapa) and lirnog : 
"&pd<jo(*)) from rapdaacj. So, also, (ppovdoc, from irpo and 666g : <ppov- 
pof, for Trpoopog, from fcpo and opaw. 

DEVIATIONS FROM THE RULE RESPECTING MUTES OF 
THE SAME CLASS. 

There are certain deviations from the rule that mutes of 
the same class must be joined together ; with regard to 
which the following special rules obtain : 

Rule 1. Two aspirates are not found in immediate con- 
nection, but the first is changed into its kindred smooth ; 
as, 2a7T(/)ai, not 2a0<2>c6 : Ba/£%oc, not Bdxx°S : 'ArOLc, not 
'Addle. 

Rule 2. Two syllables following one another in imme- 
diate succession, in a word, can not both begin with an aspi- 
rate ; but in this case, the aspirate which stands at the be- 
ginning of the first syllable is changed into its kindred 
smooth. Thus, we change 

edpixprjv (stem. 0PY4>, present ftpviTTO)) into erpv<j)7]v. 





(perfect of (piXeoj) 


a 


TcecpLXrjtca. 


&V(f)(x) 




it 


TV(f)G). 


edd(f)7jv 


(stem. OA^>, present ddnro)) 


it 


erd(p7jv. 


$pe(j)G) 




a 


rp£(f>G). 


tipLxog 


(stem. 8PIX, nom. 


a 


rptxog. 


$pexo> 




ts 


rpex<*). 




(stem. OAXT) 


a 


raxvg. 




(stem. 0NA, present tivrjaicco) 


a 


riOvrjKa. 




(stem. OE) 


(« 





34 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



Exceptions. L The passive termination -&rjv, and all its de- 
rivative terminations which begin with have no influence 
upon the preceding aspirate ; and thus we write, topd^drjv, ex'6* 
dr]v, -&ao6r]Govrai, ftpetydrivaL. In the verbs frveiv and Tidevat 
alone, # is changed into r before those terminations ; as, kfv* 

6qV, £T£dl]V. 

2. So, also, the adverbial terminations $ev and $i ; as, nav* 
tclxoOev, Kopcvdodt. 

3. In most compounds, also, the rule is neglected ; as, avdo- 

00/90^, 6(}>V(j)aiVG). 

4. The reverse of that laid down as a rule occurs in the im- 
perative termination &i, which, when the preceding syllable 
begins with an aspirate, is changed itself into n ; as, Tv$6r}Ti 
for TvQOrjdi (1st aorist imperative passive of tvtttu). — Yet even 
this is not a general rule, as the forms (pddi (" say," from (pyfii) 
and redvadi (" die," from ^vtjctkg)) prove, but holds good merely 
of the first aorist imperative passive ; for the forms rtderc and 
&£tl (from TLdyfii) exist in grammar alone, as schemes of a pos- 
sible formation. 

When in the course, however, of inflexion, or formation, 
the second aspirate disappears, the first, of course, returns. 
Thus, we have 

erpv(j)7]v, but ftpvirrco in the present, ftpv^pG) future. 

rvcfXi), " dvipo) in the future. 

rp£(pG), " dpeipoj" " " 

erd(p7]v, " ddnTG), present ; ddxpG), future. 

rptxog, " dpti; in the nominative. 

raxvg, " ddaoayv in the comparative. 

rps^oj, " -ftpe^ofjiai, future middle. 

When the first syllable of a word begins with a rough 
breathing, and the second with an aspirated letter, the 
rough breathing changes to a smooth. Thus, 

l%u (stem r EX) changes to but future et-w. 
eadrjs (stem f E) " " eoOrjg. 

b(ppa 4< " b(j)pa. 

Rule 3. When a T-sound (r, d, #), in the course of 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 35 

inflexion, comes in contact with another T-sound, the first 
changes to a a; thus, 

enetd-drjv (from itslOg)) becomes eTTeladrjv. 

neid-reog (from ixeidcd) " Treiariog. 

rjpeid-dqv (from epeidco) st <r\p£iGQr\v* 



From the collision of mutes with liquids or the sibilant cr, 
or of liquids with liquids, the following rules also result. 
Thus, 

THE MUTES BEFORE M. 
Rule. A P-soimd (7r, (3, 0) before [i changes to fi. 
A K-sound (ft, y, %) before \l changes to y. 
A T-sound (r, 6, #, £) before \x changes to a. 

Thus, 



P-sound : 


rerpid-fiai (from 


rpcdo)) 


becomes 


TSTpifjLfJLaL. 




XeXsLTT~iiai ( 


a 


Xeino) 


<t 


XeXeififiai. 




yeypafi-fiat ( 


u 


ypd(j)G)) 


a 


ykypa\i\Lau 


K-sound : 


rreTrXefc-fiat ( 


a 


nXetcG)) 


a 


TrenXeyfiat. 




XeXey-fiat ( 


<( 


Xeycj) 


remains 


XeXeyfiai, 




fiedpex-fiai ( 


a 


Ppe X u) 


becomes 


j3e6pey(iai. 


T-sound : 


7]VVT-fJiaL ( 


a 


aVVTG)) 


a 


rjvvoficu. 




7]peid-fj,at ( 


it 


epecdo)) 


a 


rjpeuTfiai. 




7T87T£l6-fXaL ( 


a 


ireldG)) 


t< 


7T£7T£lf7fiat. 




tcefc6[iiS-^at ( 


a 




U 


fC£fi6fiiGfj,at. 



THE MUTES BEFORE 2. 
Rule. A P-sound before a becomes with it i/v 
A K-sound before a becomes with it f . 
A T-sound before a is thrown out. 

Thus, 

P-sound : Xetn-GG) (from Xelttg)) becomes Xskjjoj. 

TOl6-OG) ( " Tpi6(i)) " TpLlpG). 

ypd(f)-GG) ( " ypdcj)G)) " ypdi/x*). 
K-sound : nXefc-Git) ( " irXenG)) " ttXe%g). 

Xey-oo) ( " Aeyw) " Aefw. 



86 EUPHOiVIC CHANGE 

T-sound : dvvr-ao) (from avvrco) becomes avvaoj* 
epeld-GG) ( " epeido)) " epeloG). 
ireid-OG) ( " ttelOg)) " 7telgg). 
eXirLd-OG) ( " eXttl^cj) 6i eXttigg). 
Exception. The preposition en before o remains 
unaltered ; as, ekgu^g). 

OF THE LIQUID N. 

Rule 1. 

N before a F-sound (7r, (3, <f>, ip) changes to p. 1 
N before a K-sound y, changes to y. V 

N before a T-sound (r, 6*-, $) remains unchanged,. 5 
Thus, 



kv-TTEipLa becomes e/Lcireipia. 
£v-\jjvxog " ijLiipvxor. 



cvv-ftaleG) becomes Gvynakev). 
<rvv-yiyv6cnco " avyycyvuGKu. 
(jvv-xpovos " Gvyxpovoq* 
cvv-£eG) 44 GvyZecj. 

But avvretvo), ovvdeo), gvvOeg), remain unchanged. 

Exceptions. The enclitics are excepted ; as, ovnep 7 
rovye. 

Rule 2. N before a liquid is changed into that liquid ; 
as, 

Gvv-Xoyi^Gj becomes GvXXoyc^o). 
Gvv-fiETpla " avfjtfiETpta. 

GVV-ptTTTG) OVppllTTG}. 

Exception : ev before p ; as, EvptirrG) : though £p- 
pvOfxog is more common than Evpvdfiog. But sel- 
dom remains before X ; as, EvXafctcEVG). 
Rule 3. N is always dropped before and before <r 
in inflexion, and also in those compound words in which 
another consonant follows g. The naturally-short vow- 
el that precedes remains short after the rejection of v be- 
fore (7. Thus, 

Gvv^vyia becomes Gv^vyta. 

6ai\iovGi " 6ai\ioGL. 
GvvGT7]\ia " GVGrr\\ia. 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



37 



Exceptions. 1. The preposition ev : as, evao(pog, 
kvorcetpco, ev^evyvvfXL. — 2. The adverb iraXiv : as, 
iraXivoMog. — 3, Certain inflexions and formations in 
oat and ccg, from verbs in aivo) : as, rrecbavaat (from 
(f)atvG)) ; TTSTravaig (from Trenatvo)). — 4. Some few 
substantives in ivg and vvg : as, eXfiLvg, Treipivg, To- 
pvvg. — 5. The v in ovv becomes a in composition 
before a and a vowel ; as, ovoogj^g), not c;i;wc5^6j. 

ACCUMULATION OF CONSONANTS, 

I. The accumulation or juxtaposition of consonants gives 
rise to a harshness which the Greek language studiously 
endeavors to avoid. 

II. In the Greek language, two, or three, consonants can 
come together; seldom four; never jive. 

III. When three consonants come together in a simple 
word, the first or the last, or the first and the last, must be 
a liquid, or the sibilant a, or y before y, k, x > a s, ~eji(bQelc, 
OK?.rjp6g, rey^o). 

IV. When, however, three consonants come together in 
a compound word, perspicuity of derivation allows n and o, 
at the end of the first part of the compound, to remain be- 
fore two other consonants ; as, etcrpcdo), efcnrvG), knoTrevdco, 
dvocpdaprog. 

V. When, in the inflexion of verbs, there is appended to 
the stem-consonant an ending that begins with od, the a is 
thrown out. Thus, 

XeXeLTT-aSojv (from XeinG)) becomes XeXeicpOcov. 
AeXey-Gdojoav ( " Xeyoj) " XehexOuoav. 

r\yy£X-oQai ( " dyyeXXo)) " 7]yyeX6at. 

VI. When the liquid v comes in contact with a T-sound 
and a a, the v and the T-sound are both rejected, and the 
short vowel before a changes into a diphthong, or into a 
long vowel ; namely, e into u \ o into ov ; a,l,v into d, I, v. 
Thus, 

D 



38 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



Tv<f)0evTg becomes rv(j)0ei<;. irdvrat becomes Tract. 

OTTSvdoG) " G7T£L(JG). eXfJLLVdoi " 6?LfJLLGL> 

MovTOi " Xeovot. deucvvvrg u detuvvg. 
rvxpavrg " Tthpag.. 'Eevocpojvrat " 'Eevocpojot. 1 

VI. Four consonants can only come together in the mid- 
dle of a word ; and then, in the case of simple words, only 
in the combinations Xttrp and pmrp ; and, in the case of 
compound words, only in the combinations vocpp, vgica, 
vorp, patch, porp, aarp, fcorp, and aocbp. 

Remark 1. In a few words, after a vowel has been thrown out, 
the combinations fip and vp occur, and, as these were unpleasing to 
the Grecian ear, their sound was sought to be softened down by the 
insertion of /? or d. Thus, fZEaTj^spla. by dropping the vowel, be- 
comes fiEarifipia, and this, by the insertion of /?, is changed to fieayju- 
6pia. So yapepog, yafipoq, and, finally, yap,6pog : avspog, avpog, dvdpog ; 
fLE/LLeAijrat, /LLsp?ir}Tai, Epic p.Efi6?i£fai : kahbg, Doric ; but Eodhog, Epic 
and Attic, &c. 

Remark 2. A particular mode of avoiding harshness, and subserv- 
ing the purposes of Euphony, was by means of Metathesis, or the 
transposition of letters, when one of them happened to be a liquid. 
Thus we have the poetic forms, EirpaQov for Ewapdov : fdpaOov for 
IdapOov : ZdpaKov for idapnov : Kpadlrj for fcapdla, &c. The poets 
sometimes avail themselves of both forms, according as the verse 
may require ; as, naprEpog and Kparspog : Kapriarog and upaTLorog : 
papdivTog and fipadicrog : and, among the tragic writers, tidpaog and 
dpdaog: ftapovvu and d-paavvo. 

Remark 3. In the old language, there were found in many words 
two consonants, one of which was dropped in the course of time ; 
as, TTToTiEfjLog, later form TcoXEfxog: 7CTo?ag, later form noXcg. The 
poets, especially the Epic writers, availed themselves of such old 
forms, partly for the sake of the metre, and partly for greater full- 
ness of tone. 

Remark 4. In many words, however, beginning with <r, this letter 
is merely a later addition. Thus we have, as old forms, fiLKpog, ke- 

1. The form tvtttuvtgi, given in most grammars as an illustra- 
tion of this rule, is erroneous. The original form was tvtttuvti 
(just as the termination vn is preserved in Sanscrit and Doric), 
and, the r changing into <r, the form tvtttcjvtl became tvtttovgi, and 
this, by dropping the v-sound before a, tvktugl. It is plain, there- 
fore, that tvtttuvtgl is what Bopp describes it to be, a truly monstrous 
form. (Vergleick. Gramm., p. 274.) 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



39 



6dvvvp,t } \iika%, fiapaydoc, Kd^avdpoq ; and, as later forms, GfitKp6g f 
GKeddvvvfu, (jpiXat;, Gfidpaydog, ^Kdfiavdpog. 

DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. 

I. The semivowels A, fi, v, p, a, and the mute-consonant 
r, are alone, in general, capable of being doubled in the 
ordinary language ; as, aXXog, fiaXXov, K,6\i\La, Xr\\i\ia, fcdv- 
vadcg, eppo), tcloog), Xsvogg), ?]GOG)v, Tarro), rjrrcdv. 

II. Besides these, we find, also, n and tc doubled in cer- 
tain words ; as, inrrog, Trdrrrrog, KuftKog. Other doublings 
of letters belong to the head of Dialects. 

III. The letter p is doubled in the following cases : 1. 
On prefixing the augment ; as, eppeov, from pea). — 2. In 
composition, when a short vowel goes before ; as, app7]fc- 
roc, (Sadvppoog. But evpcjarcog, from ev and puvvvfii. 

Remark. In the case of 'Odvaevs, 'Ax^evg, for 'Odvacrevc, 'kxth- 
?„evc, it is more correct to regard the former as the earlier forms, 
and the latter as of subsequent formation, by the doubling of the 
liquid and sibilant. 

OF FIGURES AFFECTING SYLLABLES. 

1. Prosthesis (npogdeoig) is the addition of one or more 
letters to the beginning of a word ; as, apifcpog for fit/cpog : 
ajidpaydog for fidpaySog : eelkool for eikool. 

2. Paragoge (irapayuyrj) is the addition of one or more 
letters to the end of a word ; as, fjoda for fjg : Xoyotoiv for 
Xoyoig. 

3. Epenthesis (ensvQsocg) is the insertion of one or more 
letters in the body of a word ; as, sXXadov for eXa6ov : qji- 
fiaOov for EfiaOov : dnnolog for onolog. 

4. Syncope (ovy/conrj) is the taking away of one or more 
letters from the body of a word ; as, narpog for narepog ; 
repaog for reparog. 

5. Aphceresis (afyatpECig) is the taking away of one or 
more letters from the beginning of a word ; as, etdco for 
Xeldo) : ala for yala ; r\ for <j)fj. 

6. Apocope (dirorcoirrj) is the taking away of one or more 



40 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 



letters from the end of a word ; as, alio for altiva : Uoaetdcj 
for ILooeidojva. 

7. Metathesis (jieradsoH;) is the transposition of letters 
and syllables ; as, enpaOov for snapdov : edpatcov for Map- 
Kov : Kpadta for napdia. 1 

8. Tmesis (TfiTjoig) is the separation of the preposition 
of a compound from the verb, by means of some other word 
intervening ; as, virep rtva £%elv for vnepexetv rivd. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

Remark 1. We have followed the custom of the day in the enu- 
meration of these figures, but many of the examples usually cited 
are merely forms of the earlier language, retained by the poets, 
and mistaken by the grammarians for licenses. 

Remark 2. The examples which we have given of Prosthesis 
may be regarded as genuine ones {Kuhner> § 54, 2) ; but such forms 
as ktvttoc for tvttoc, nroXe/xoc for iroheiioc, tttoXic for ttoIlcj &c, are 
the earlier of the two ; and note/uoc, no?iic, and tvttoc, are actu- 
ally instances of aphaeresis. 

Remark 3. All the instances that are accustomed to be given of 
Paragoge are very suspicious, if not positively wrong, and ought, no 
doubt, to be regarded as earlier and heavier forms of the language. 
Thus, rjada is nothing more than the old form of the 2d person, with 
&a appended as the personal ending, and with which we may com- 
pare the English thou and the Sanscrit dha. So olcda, originally 
old-da. Vid. page 258, § 3. 

Remark 4. Epenthesis is frequently resorted to by the poets for 
the sake of the metre, though many of the cases of epenthesis 
which appear in modern editions ought to be expunged, and the 
arsis or ictus metricus brought in to lengthen a syllable. 

Remark 5. Instances of Aphaeresis are numerous among the po- 
ets, especially the Epic ones ; as, oaxoc for fioaxog ; la for fiia ; or- 
raSoc for KorraSoc : rjyavov for rijyavov, &C. 

Remark 6. Apocope is another very suspicious figure, and the in- 
stances commonly adduced of its operation are, in all probability, 
no instances at all. The old Epic language would seem to have 
contained many words formed immediately from verbal roots, for 
which fuller forms were used in the ordinary language. Thus, we 
have 6(b for Sufia : apt for Kptdr] : a%<f>i for atytrov, &c, which the 



i. Consult page 38, Remark 2. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



41 



grammarians mistook for examples of Apocope. (Consult Kiihner, 
§ 303, Anm. 4 ; Salmas., Hellenist., p. 390 ; Fischer, ad Well., u., 
p. 191.) 

Remark 7. The student must be careful not to bring the Tmesis 
into the Homeric poems. In the time of Homer, the preposition 
was a mere adverb. The regular Tmesis comes in with the Attic 
writers. 



CHAPTER III. 

INFLECTION OF WORDS. 

I. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

I. There are nine parts of speech in Greek, namely, 
Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, 
Preposition, and Conjunction. 

II. The Participle, however, is commonly ranked under 
the Adjectives. 

III. The Interjection, being a mere exclamation, is, in 
strictness, no part of speech at all. It is generally, how r - 
ever, considered as belonging to Adverbs. 

IV. The Greek names of the several parts of speech are 
as follows : 



Article — "kpOpov. 
Noun =z v Ovo[ia. 
Adjective =r 'Etu#£tw. 
Pronoun ~ 'Avrcjvvfila. 



Verb =z 'Pijua. 

Participle = Meroxy- 
Adverb — ^Tclpprjfia. 
Preposition == JlpoOeaig. 



Conjunction 6 z=z Svvdeofzoc. 

V. Of the parts of speech, the Article, Noun, Adjective, 
Participle, and Pronoun are declined by Genders (yevrf), 
Cases (nTG)aetg), and Numbers (apiBfiot). 

VI. There are three Genders, the Masculine, Feminine, 
and Neuter, called respectively, in Greek, yevog dpoevifcov, 
ytvog -dnXvuov, and yevog ovdsrepov. 

VII. To mark the gender in Greek, the Article is usually 
employed by grammarians ; namely, 6 for the masculine* ?) 

D2 



42 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



for the feminine, and to for the neuter. Thus, 6 avOpoyrroc., 
"the man;''' i] yvvrj, " the woman-" to ^prjfia, " the thing." 

VIII. Some nouns, however, are both masculine and 
feminine ; as, 6 and r) norcvog, " the wild olive-tree." These 
are said to be of the Common Gender. 

IX. There are three Numbers, the Singular, Dual, and 
Plural, called, in Greek, respectively, dpidfiog kvmoq : 
dptOjiog dvliioq : apiOjiog ir/irjOvvriKog. — The singular de- 
notes one ; the plural, more than one ; the dual, two, or a 
pair. Thus, Singular, rj %&pa, "the country;" Dual, rd 
%o)pa, " the two countries Plural, ai %&pai, " the coun- 
tries''' 1 

X. There are five Cases (nrcjo'eig), namely, Nominative, 
Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Vocative, 2 the appellations 
of which, in Greek, are as follows : 

Nominative — TTrtioic; ovofiaarifc?]. 
Genitive = tttcdolc; yevifcrj. 
Dative == rcrcjatg doruirj. 
Accusative == tttCjolc: ainartfcrj. 
Vocative — Trrtioiq \tkr\TiKr\. 

XI. The Greek language has no ablative, although the 
employment of one would certainly tend to perspicuity. 

1. The Cohans dispensed with the Dual form, hoth in Conjuga- 
tion and Declension. So, also, the Romans, with the exception of 
duo and ambo. Compare Gregor. Corinth, xxix., De Mot. Dial., p. 
606, sch. : role dvinolc aptd/Ltolg ovtol (sc. Moles) ov KExprjvrat, nada 
6rj teal ol 'Fofialoc, tovtov ovrec uttolkol. — r J he study of comparative 
grammar shows, that the Dual was originally common to the differ- 
ent branches of the Indo-Germanic family, but that it. has gradually 
disappeared from the greater number of them. We find it in the 
Sanscrit and Zend, for example, whereas in Pali it occurs only in 
two words, dui, "two," and oubha, "both," exactly as in Latin. 
Traces of it are found in the Gothic, but not in the more modern 
Teutonic dialects. {Bopp, Vergleich. Gramm., p. 237, seqq.) For far- 
ther remarks on the Dual, consult Syntax. 

2. The writers on comparative grammar speak of a Locative case 
in both Greek and Latin ; that is, a case having reference to place, 
&c. In both these languages, however, the Locative has united it- 
self under one form with the dative, but still without losing its own 
peculiar reference to place. Hence we have kodtivt, " at Dodona ;" 
Tslapadtivi, "at Marathon;' 1 oIkoi, "at home;" a-ypti, "in the coun- 
try," &c. 



THE ARTICLE. 



43 



The functions of an ablative are discharged by the da- 
tive. 1 

GENERAL RULES WITH REGARD TO THE GREEK 
CASES. 2 

I. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nominative, ac- 
cusative, and vocative alike in all three numbers, and these 
cases in the plural end always in a. 

II. The nominative and vocative plural are always alike. 

III. The nominative, accusative, and vocative dual are 
alike ; as also the genitive and dative. 

IV. The dative singular, in all the declensions, ends in 
1, but in the first and second declensions the i is sub- 
scribed. 

V. The genitive plural ends always in cjv. 



H. THE ARTICLE. 3 

I. The Article is a word prefixed to a noun, adjective, 
participle, &c, and serving to ascertain or define them. 

II. The declension of the Article is as follows : 

1. A series of arguments in favor of an Ablative in Greek may 
be seen in the Port-Royal Greek Grammar, p. 379, seqq. — That tra- 
ces of such a case, in the early forms of the language, do exist in 
Greek, is beyond a doubt ; and the analogy of the Latin, moreover, 
is a strong argument in its favor. In Greek, adverbs in coc may be 
regarded as sister-forms of the Sanscrit ablative ; so that w-c, from 
a stem in o, bears relation to the Sanscrit a-t, from a stem in a, just 
as diduoL does to dadd-ti. Hence for example, is related to 
the Sanscrit samd-t, "similarly," both in its ending and its stem. 
Now in the Greek language, the change from r to a at the end of a 
word was absolutely necessary, in order to prevent the total sup- 
pression of the former letter ; and, therefore, we may safely say 
that such adverbs as 6/llcj-c, ovru-g, came originally from 
ovtu-t, w-r, all a kind of ablative form. We have a similar analogy 
in the Latin adverbial forms quomodo, raro, vero, perpetuo, &c. 

2. For some general remarks on the formation of the Greek cases, 
consult page 123. 

3. In the older grammars two articles are given ; the prepositive, 
6, 77, to, and the postpositive, be, rj, 6, which we call at the present 
day the relative pronoun. In a sentence like the following, " This is 
the man who will deliver us" (ovtoc. egtlv 6 dvr}p be cuoeL vfidc), the 
two words the and ivho (d and be) refer so intimately to each other, 



44 



THE ARTICLE. 



Singular. 





JSIasc. 




Neut. 




Norn. 


6 


V 


TO 


the. 


Gen. 


TOV 


Trjg 


TOV 


of the. 


Vat. 


TG) 


r V 


TG) 


to the. 


A ecus. 


TOV 


TTjV 


TO 


the. 






Dual. 






Norn. 


TG) 


TO, 


TG) 


the two. 


Gen. 


TOLV 


TOlv 


TOlv 


of the two. 


Dai. 


Tolv 


Talv 


TOlv 


to the two. 


Accus. 


TG) 


tA 


TG) 


the two. 






Plural. 






Nom. 


oi 


al 


Ta 


the. 


Gen. 


TG)V 


TG)V 


TG)V 


of the. 


Bat. 


Tolg 


Tale 


Tolg 


to the. 


Accus. 


Tovg 


Tag 


TCb 


the. 




REMARKS 


ON THE 


ARTICLE 





1. The Article was originally a demonstrative pronoun, "this" 
" that" and such is generally its meaning in Homer, though it some- 
times loses, in that poet, a portion of its strict demonstrative signi- 
fication, and passes over into the meaning of the pronoun of the third 
person, he, she, it. . This latter usage is very frequent in Herodotus. 

2. There is no form of the article for the Vocative, since d is a 
mere exclamation. 

3. If the particles ye and 6e are annexed to the article, it has the 
signification of the pronoun " this," in both poetry and prose, even 

and lock, as it were, into one another so much like joints, connect- 
ing in this way the two clauses as members or limbs of one sen- 
tence, that the Greeks named them dpdpa, " articuli," or "joints." 
The first of these, however, namely, 6, i], to, stands very commonly 
with its simple clause alone, and is, therefore, strictly speaking, in 
such instances no longer an article or joint. But this arises from 
the circumstance that, in very many instances of this kind, the sec- 
ond clause is not expressed in words, but is left to be mentally sup- 
plied ; such as, "who is spoken of," or, "who is here concerned," 
or, "whom you know," &c. Hence it became, by degrees, a usage 
of language to annex the prepositive article, 6, rj, to, by itself to 
every object which was to be represented as definite, either by 
means of the language itself, or from the circumstances. In their 
whole theory, however, the two articles are adjective pronouns. 
(Buttmann, Larger Grammar, p. 121, Robinson's transl.) 



NOUNS. 



45 



in the Attic writers ; but the declension remains the same. Thus, 
ode, fyde, rode : genitive, Tovde, Tijgde, Tovde, &c. 

4. In the early Greek, the form of the article in the nominative 
was rof, ttj, to : and hence arise the plural to'l, tcl'l, in Doric and 
Ionic, and the r in the neuter and in the oblique cases. 

5. Some old grammarians wrote with the accent o, rj, ol, at, when 
used as demonstrative pronouns, but better critics reserve the ac- 
cent for the relative pronoun 6, to, alluded to in § 7. 

6. The true use of the article is first fully established in Attic 
Greek, while the demonstrative usage proportionally disappears, 
except in a few cases. 

7. The form b, rj, to, accentuated through all cases, is the rela- 
tive pronoun for bg, 6, somewhat like our that for which. On the 
other hand, the genitive and dative enclitic tov, tcj, are for tivoc, 
tlvl, from the indefinite pronoun tic, ™> in which case tov and r<*> 
are of all three genders: but neither ttjc, t-q, nor the plural occurs. 
And, again, tov and tQ, with the accent, often occur in the Attic 
writers for the interrogative tIvoc, tivt. 



DIALECTS OF THE ARTICLE. 





Doric. 


Epic. 




'a. 




TOV, 


t£). 


TOLO. 


rr/g, 


rag. 




Tfl, 


Ta. 




T//V, 


TUV. 




OL, 


TOL. 


TOL. 


at, 


rat. 


Tat. 


tCjv (tern.). 


TUV. 


tucjv. 


Tolg, 




Toiai. 


Talc, 




Tdiot, Trjot, and Trjg. 


TOVC, 


Ttog and Tog. 




The /Eolians also said Tog and Tug for Tovg. 



III. NOUNS. 1 

I. The Declensions (tcXLoeig) of Nouns are three in num- 
ber, corresponding to the first three declensions in Latin. 

II. The First Declension has Jive terminations ; three 

1. For some general remarks on the formation of Cases, &c, con- 
sult page 123. 



46 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



feminine, in a, a, and rj ; and two masculine, in tig and 

III. The Second Declension has /wo terminations, name- 
ly, in oc and ov. Nouns in og are generally masculine, 
sometimes feminine ; nouns in ov are always neuter. 

IV. The Third Declension ends in a, i, v, neuter ; g) fem- 
inine ; and v, p, a, tp, of all genders, and increases in the 
genitive. 

FIRST DECLENSION 
Terminations. 



ag 
rjg 



masculine. 





SINGULAR. 


DUAL. 


PLURAL 


Nom. 


d, 


d, 








d, 


ai, 


Gen. 




df, 




ov, 


ov, 


atv, 


wv, 


Dat. 




d, 




d, 




aiv, 




Acc. 


dv, 


av, 


7JV, 


civ, 


7]V, 


d, 


df, 


Voc. 


d, 


d, 


y, 


d, 




d, 


ai. 



PARADIGMS. 
Feminine Nouns. 

I. Nouns in pa, and a pure, that is, a preceded by a 
vowel or diphthong, together with some proper names ; as, 
Arjda, ' Avdpofieda, ^iXo\ir{ka, Aiorifia, and also the sub- 
stantive aXaXd, 66 a war cry," have the genitive in ag, and 
retain the a through all the cases of the singular. 

II. All the contracted nouns of this declension likewise 
retain the a in the genitive, and other cases of the singu- 
lar ; as, fxva, gen. \iv-dg : 'AOrjvd, gen. 'AOrjv-dg, &c. 

III. All other nouns in a have the genitive in rjg, and 
dative in rj; but in the accusative and vocative they re. 
sume their a. 



1. The terminations of the First Declension are generally given 
as four in numher; namely, a and 77 (or d), feminine ; and dq and 770 
masculine. The arrangement which we have followed appears far 
preferable. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



47 



IV. Nouns in r\ retain the rj throughout the singular 
number, making the accusative in rjv, and the vocative in rj. 
Thus, 

1. a through all the cases. 
i] x&pa, " the country." 
Nom. Sing, f) %&pd, " the country" J 
Nom. Dual, rd %&pa, " the two countries" > i 
Nom. Plural, at %&>pai, " the countries." ) 

Singular. Dual. 

N. f)^ %up-a, N. rd %up-d, 

G. rr)c #o5p-dc, G. raZv %G)p-aiv, 

D. ^;c5|0-a, D. rah> ;£6jp-a^, 

A. r^v %&p~av, | A. rd ;£G3p-d, 

V. ^wp-a. [V. %wp-d. 



N. at ^WjQ-ai, 
G. rw^ ^wp-wv, 
D. rate ^wp-euc, 
A. rdc %wp-dc, 
V. X&p-ai. 



r) G(f)vpd, " the hammer" 



Singular. 
N. 7\ oepvp-d, 
G. rrjg <T(pvp~dg, 
J), rxj ocf)vp-a, 
A. rr)v oepvp-dv, 
V. c<pvp-d. 



Singular. 

N. ?y olttL-d, 

G. rrjg oifCL-dg, 

D. rrj oitCL-a, 

A. rrjv olfcc-dv, 

V. olfcc-d. 



Dual. . 
N. rd o<pvp-d, 
G. ralv ocf)vp-aLv, 
D. ralv acpvp-atv, 
A. rd oepvp-d, 
V. G<pvp~d. 

f) olfccd, " house." 



Plural. 
N. a£ (j(pvp-ai,, 
G. twv o<pvp-G)v, 
D. ra£c C(pvp-aic, 
A. rdc G(pvp-dg, 
V. G(f>vp-ac. 



Dual. 
N. rd olicL-d, 
G. ra^ 
!D. rah; 
A. t« 
V. 



OLfa-atv, 

OLKL-aLV, 

olfci-d, 
olfci-d. 



Plural 

N. a£ olfcL-ai, 

G. TGJV OIKL-GJV, 

D. ra£c OLKi-aig, 
A. rdc oifcc-dc;, 
V. olnL-ai. 



Singular. 
N. 77 d/la/l-d, 
G. r^c dAaA-dc, 
D. T^/ d/laA-a, 
A. r?)v d/laA-dv, 
V. d/laA-d. 



?) dAdAd, " /7te loar-cry 

Dual. 
N. rd d/la/l-d, 
G. ra^ dAaA-an;, 
D. ra£v dXaX-alv, 
A. rd dAaA-d, 
V. dAaA-d. 



Plural. 
N. ai dXaX-at, 



G. TWV 
D. ra£c 
A. rdc 
V. 



aAaA-w^, 
dAaA-a£c, 
dAaA-dc, 
dXaX-at. 



I. This is given as a general example for the mode of translating 
while declining a noun. 



48 



FTRST DECLENSION. 



2. d making rjg in the genitive, &c. 



Singular. 
N. fj dd£-d, 
G. rr\g 66^-rjg, 
D. rf( 

A. rrjv 66t;-dv, 
V. 66^d. 



i] 66i-d, " /Ae opinion." 



Dual. 
N. Td dd£-d, 
G. tcmv dof-aii', 
D. Tao> dog-aiv, 
A. Td ddf-d, 
V. dd£-d. 



Plural. 
N. aZ dog. at, 
G. Ttiv dot-'tiv, 
D. Ta£c d6i-*aig, 
A. Tdc dog-dg, 



7) Xsaivd, " /Ae lioness." 



Singular. 
N. ?J Xzaiv.d, 
G. tt/c XEalv-Tjg, 

D. T7/ XeCLLV'%1, 

A. tt)v Xeaiv-dv, 
V. Xsacv-d. 



Dual. 
N. rd Xeaiv-di 
G. t<w2; Xeaiv-aLV, 
D. ratv Xeaiv-aiv, 
A. rd Xsatv-d, 
V. Xsalv-d. 



Plural. 
N. at Xeatv-cu, 
G. twv Xeaiv-tiv, 
D. Ta^ Xealv-cug, 
A. Tdc Xeaiv.dg, 
V. Xeatv-at. 



3. 77 making 77 through all the cases of the singular. 

77 yv&\n]i " tfAe opinion" 

Dual. Plural. 

N. rd yvufi-a, N. a/ 

G. Ta£v yv&\i-aiv, G. rwi' 

D. ran> yvte/jL.cuv, D. rate 

A. Td yvG)[i-a, A. rdc 

V. yvufi-a. V. 



Singular. 
N. ?) yvojfi-7], 
G. T7/c yvG)f.i-7]g. 
D. yfitifi 

A. TTjV yVG){l-7]V 

V. yvcofji-rj. 



yvcjfi-ai, 

yVG)fJL-G)Vi 

yvo) [i.aig, 
yvG)fjt,.dg, 
yvtifi-cu. 



N. ?/ 

G. T7/C 
A. T?)l> 

V. 



Singular. 



Tlfl-7], 

rifi-Tjg, 

TLfJ,-7]V, 
Tl\L-7]. 



7) rifjiTj, " /Ae honor." 
Dual. 

N. Td T^-d, N. a£ 

G. Tah> rifi-aiv, G. tc5v 

D. t<uv TLfj,-alv, D. Tate 

A. Td rifi-d, A. Tdc 

V. T^-d. V. 



Plural. 



Ti\i-alg^ 
Ti[x~dg, 



Singular. 
N. 77 vecpeX-rj, 
G. T7/c vs(j)eX-r]g, 
D. T^f vztyeX-rj, 

A. T?)^ V£(f)£X-7]V, 

V. ve(peX-7j. 



7) ve(j)sXi], " ^Ae cloud" 

Dual. 

N. Td vecpeX-d, 

G. ralv vEfykX-aiv, 

D. Tah> VEcbsX-atv, 

A. Td vE(piX-d^ 

V. v&peX-a. 



Plural. 
N. al ve^eX-cil, 
G. rdv VE(f)EX.G)v y 
D. Tate VEtpsX-aig, 
A. Tdc VE(f>EX.dg, 
V. v£(f)sX.ai, 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



49 



II. MASCULINES. 
L Masculines in dg make the genitive in ov and the 
dative in a, and the remaining cases like those of %&pa. 

II. Masculines in rjg make the genitive in ov, but retain 
the 7\ in all the other cases of the singular. The dual and 
plural cases are like those of %&pa. 

III. But the following nouns in rjg make the vocative 
singular in a. 

1 . All nouns in T7\g ; as, To^orrjg, " an archer ;" 
Voc. TO^or-d. — TTpocbrj-rjg, " a prophet ;™ Voc. rrpo^ 
7]T-d. — 7ToXtT7jg, " a citizen ;" Voc. TzoXlr-d. 

2. All nouns compounded of a substantive and a 
verb; as, yew/xerp^c, "a geometer" (from yea, "land" 
and {lerpeG), " to measure") ; Voc. yeojfierp-d. — fivpo- 
TT&Xrjg, u an unguent- seller" (from fivpov, " an unguent" 
and 7ra>/l£6), " to sell") ; Voc. \LvpoixwX.d. 

3. Gentile nouns in 77c ; as, Heporjg, "a Persian;" 
Voc. HepO'd. — SfcvOng, "a Scythian;" Yoc.^Kvd-d. 
— But Uepanc, " Perses" a man's name, makes the 
vocative in 77 by the general rule ; as, Uepo-7]. 

4. Nouns in irng ; as, ftvv&TTTjg, u a shameless per- 
son ;* Voc. fcvvojn-d. — TTapSevoTTlnng, " a seducer ;" 

VOC. TTapdsVOTTLTT'd. 

5. A few proper names ; as, Ao^vt/c, Voc Ad^v-a. 
— Uvpaixiirjg, Voc. Hvpalxp-d. 

Remark 1. Several of the masculines in dg have the Doric geni- 
tive in d ; as, TrarpaTiocag, " a parricide fi-qrpaloLag, " a matricide ; n 
bpvLdodrjpag, "a bird-catcher Gen. irarpaloid, &c. Also several 
Doric and foreign proper names ; as, Sv^af, SyZ/a ; Gen. 2vl/.ti. — 
'AvvtSac, Hannibal; Gen. 'AvviS-a. And, finally, contracted nouns 
in dc ; as, ftopfidc, contracted from fiopeac, Gen. fiopp-d. 

Remark 2. Proper names in ac that are Grecian, and not foreign, 
as well as most of the more celebrated Doric names, generally have 
the ending of the genitive in ov ; as, 'ApxvTag, AewviSag, '^napei- 
vuvdae, Havcavtac, &c. ; Gen. 'Apx&Tov, &c, 

E 



50 



FIRST DECLENSION, 



6 veavidg, " the youth." 

Singular. Dual. 

N. 6 veavi-dg, N. to) veavt-d, 

G. roi) veavL-ov 7 G. rolv V£avi-aLv y 

D. rc5 veavl-a, D. to£v veavt-aiv, 

A. tov veavL-dv, A. tw veavc-d, 

V. veavi'd. V. vsavL-d. 



Plural 

N. oi veavt-at, 

G. twv veavi-Gdv? 

D. to£c veavL-aLg y 

A. to£c veavl-dg, 

V. veavi-ac. 



Singular. 
N. 6 T£XG)V-7]g, 
G. TOV TE?^G)V-OV, 

D. to) reXdjv-xj, 

A. TOV T£/tG)V-7lV, 
V. TsXcjV-TJ. 



6 TeXtevrjg, " the tax-gatherer" 



Dual. 
N. tcj reXcjv.d, 
G, rolv TeXtiv-aiVi 
D. to£v reXojv-aLv, 

A. TeX&V-d, 

V. reXtiv-d. 



Plural. 
N. oZ reXtiv-ac, 
G. tc5v TeAwv-tov, 
D. to£c reXtov-ai^ 
A. Toi>c reXG)v-dg f 
V. reXcov-ac. 



Singular. 
N. 6 TToXtT.Tjg, 
G. Toi) 7to/Ut-oi>, 

A. TOV 7ToXlT-7]V, 

V. 7T0/Ur-a. 



6 TwXiT7]g, " citizen" 
Dual. 

N. T6> TToXlT-d, 

G. rolv ttoXlt-cllv, 
D. toZV iroXir-aiv 
A. ™ rroXir-d, 

V. TToXlT-d. 



Plural. 
N. oZ iroXlr-at, 

G. TtoV 7T0/Ut-(0V, 

D. to£c TroXLT-atc, 

A. TOVC 7T0XLT-dc, 
V. TTOXlT-ai. 



6 dpviOodrjpdc, " /Ae bird-catcher " 



Singular. 
N. 6 bpviOoQrjp-ac, 
G. toi? bpviOodrjp-a, 
D. tC) bpvtdodrjp-a, 
A. tov bpvtdodr/p-dv, 
V. bpvtdodrjp-a. 



Dual. 
N. to) bpvtdodrjp-a, 
G. toZV bpvtdodijp-atv, 
D. roa> bpvidodr/p-aiv, 
A. to) bpvtdodrjp-a, 
V. bpvtdodrjp-a. 



N. bpvidodrjp-ai, 

G. rdh> bpvidodnp-iov, 

D. to?c bpvidodfip-aig y 

A. tovq bpvidodr)p-dq, 

V. bpvtdodfjp-at. 



6 ZvXXac, " S?/7/tf 

Singular. 

N. 6 2vAA-af, 

G. roi; 2vAA-d, 
D. tcj 

A. rov 2vM,-d>, 



'kvvibdc, " Hannibal" 

Singular. 
N. 6 'Avvi6-dg, 
G. tov 'Avw'6-a, 
D, TW 'Awi6-a, 
A. tov 'Avvid-dv, 
V. 'Avvt6-a. 



CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 
I. In forming these contractions, ea, preceded by o, and 
also da, make a ; as, epea, contracted spa, " wooZ fivda^ 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



51 



contracted \iva> " a mina j3opeag, contracted (3oppac, " the 
north wind.' 1 

II. But Ea, not preceded by p, together with en and 6?/, 
become 77 in the singular ; as, yea, contracted yrj, " 
earth yaXerj, yaXrj, " a weasel diTrXor}, SittXtj, " double 
'Epfieac, 'Eppj/c, 61 Mercury ;" 'AireXXeng, 'A7re/lA^c, " Apel- 
les 11 — In the dual and plural, however, the a reappears. 

III. In the genitive, ov absorbs the preceding vowel ; as, 
'Epfieov, 'J&pfiov. 

IV. The contracted nouns of the first declension are few 
in number, and it must be observed that they have invaria- 
bly the circumflex on the final syllable. 

Examples. 



Singular, 
N. hpE-d kp-dj 
G. kpe-ag 
D. hpe-a 
A. kpi-av 
V. £pe-a 



ep-af, 

kp-dv, 
kp~d. 



Epea, contracted epa, " wool? 

Dual. 
N. epe-a 

G. kpE-CLLV 

D " 



epE-aiv 
A. £p£-a 
V. epe-a 



sp-a, 
Ep-alv, 
£p-aiv, 
kp-a, 
kp-d. 



Plural. 
N. kpi-ac Ep-al, 

G. EpE-C)V 

D. kpE-aig 
A. kpE~a£ 
V. EpE-at 



Ep-U)Vf 

kp-alCt 
kp-d<;, 
kp-ai. 



Singular. 
N. fiva-a fiv-d, 
G. fivd-ag 
D. fivd-a 
A. fivd-av 
V. fivd-a 



fiv-ac, 
fiv-d, 

(JLV-dVj 

(iv- a. 



fivda, contracted ^va, 

N. fivd-a (iv-d, 
G. fivd-acv 
D. fivd-aiv 
A. fxvd-a 
V. fivd-a 



a mina; 



fiv-acv, 
fiv-alvy 
fiv-d, 
fxv-d. 



Plural, 
fzvd-at /Liv-aT, 

fivd-atc (iv-alg, 
fivd-ag [iv-d?, 



V. fivd-ai fiv-al. 



yaXin, contracted yaA?y, " a weasel. 1 ' 



Singular, 
N. yaXi-n ya\-ri, 
G. yaTiE-ng 
D. ya^E-y 
A. yaXk-nv 
V. yaXk-n 



yaX-fjg, 
yaX-y, 
yal-fjv, 
yaX-rj. 



Dual 
N. yaXs-a yaTi-d, 
G. yaTiE-aiv 
D. yaTiE-atv 
A. yaXi-a 
V. yaXi-a 



yaX-atv, 
yaX-alv, 
yaX-d, 
yaTi-d. 



Plural. 
N. yaXi-at ya?i-ai } 
G. yaAe-wv ya/l-ov, 

A. yals-ag ya/l-ac, 
V. yaXi-ai yak-al. 



'Ep^eac, contracted f Epp7c, " Mercury. 11 
Singular. 
N. 'Epfi-iac 'Epfi-jjc, 
G. 'Epfx-Eov 'Epfi-ov, 
D. 'Epfx-EOL 'Ep/i-rj, 
A. 'Epfi-wv 'Epfi-Tjv, 
V. 'EpjjL-Ea 'EpfJL-fj. 



Dual. 
N. 'Epfi-Ea 'Epfz-d, 
G. 'Epfx-mcv 'Epju-a/v, 
D. 'Epfi-Eatv 'Epfi-atVi 
A. 'Epp-Ea 'Ep^-a, 
V. 'Epp-ea 'Epju-d. 



Plural. 
N. 'Epfi-tat r Epfi-aZ, 
G. 'Epfire&v 'Epju-tiv, 
D. 'Epfi-iatg 'Epfi-alg, 
A. 'Epu-sag f Epfi-dg, 
V. 'Ep/LL-sai 'Epu-aZ. 



52 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE FIRST DECLENSION. 



GENERAL REMARKS ON THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

I. It is highly probable that originally the First Declension had 
only one ending for both the Masculine and Feminine, namely, dg. 
The a was the stem-vowel, and the g the mark of the gender, as in 
the second and third declensions. On a farther development of the 
language, however, the masculines and feminines separated from 
one another in form, the ending dg remaining that of the masculine, 
while in the case of feminines the g disappeared, and the short final 
vowel a became lengthened into a or tj. This long vowel subse- 
quently extended itself into the oblique cases, and at last even into 
the masculines, although these had never thrown away the g, the 
proper origin of the long vowel in question having been here com- 
pletely thrown out of account. 

II. In the iEolic dialect, masculines have also, in the nominative, 
the ending a without g, and this a, moreover, is short. Still, how- 
ever, the accentuation remains that of nouns in ag or rjg ; as, iniro- 
rd, vE^elrjyeperd. With this form we may compare the Latin poeta, 
agricola, &c. 

III. The shortening of the final a in some feminines appears to 
have come in latest, and to have depended on the nature of the 
preceding consonant. 

IV. The endings a and tj, as well as ag and Tjg, are closely related 
to each other. The difference lies, in fact, partly in Dialect, and 
partly in the rules of Euphony. The Dorians, who remained truest 
to the ancient forms, firmly adhered to the full and strong a. The 
Ionians, on the other hand, changed this same into the softer tj. 
The Attics, finally, who in their whole language preserved a pleas- 
ing medium between the Doric roughness and Ionic softness, em- 
ployed, in general, the Ionic tj, but in certain cases retained the old 
a ; namely, after a vowel and the letter p ; and also in Doric proper 
names, and some other Doric words that had crept into their dia- 
lect, as well as in the lyric portions of their poetry, where the strong 
and full-toned a seemed more congenial than the feebler tj. 

QUANTITY OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

I. The nominative in a, which has the genitive in rjg, is always 
short ; as, rpdne^d, gen. rpaire^g : rptaivd, gen. rpiatvTjg : dotja, gen. 
d6%Tjg. 

II. When a vowel or the letter p precedes the termination of the 
nominative, the a is sometimes long, sometimes short. In the fol- 
lowing cases, however, it is long : 



QUANTITY OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 53 



(a.) In the endings da, id, 6a, vd, 6a, without exception ; as, 
nreTied, Trod, and the like. 

(6.) In the ending aid ; as, yalrjva'id, deikaid, a?iKata. Ex- 
cept dissyllables ; which always shorten the final syllable ; as, 
aid, yald, ypald, fiald, &c, and some polysyllabic names of 
places ; as, 'lariaid. 

(/.) In the ending eld in some dissyllabic radical words ; as, 
"held, fiveld, xp £t d, and in polysyllabic words derived from verbs 
in evo ; as, dyveia, fiacdeid (a kingdom), Kopeid, ?,arpeid, Aoxeid, 
iTopeid : except feminine appellatives ; as, fiaaikeid, a queen ; 
iepeid, a priestess ; iravdoneid, a hostess : lengthened feminine 
names ; as, KaVuoTreid (from Ka/JAOny) : substantives derived 
from adjectives in rjg ; as, daffteid, from aaeBrjc : feminine ter- 
minations of adjectives in vc, eta, v ; as, (3a6eid, y^vaeld, i]6eld, 
and a few other words. 

((5.) In the ending id; as, ao<pid. Except feminines in rpia, 
from masculines ; as, ipdhrpid, avlrjrpid, &c, and the three ad- 
jectives, did, iiid, norvid, together with almost all words in via ; 
as, fiVLa, eldvid, Tervyvld. 

(e.) In the ending old, in radical words ; as, irroia, Tpoid, 
and in many other words of two syllables. But it is short in 
evvoia, avoid : and in derivatives of (3ovc : as, ~E.v6oid, Me?/c6otd, 
&c. 

(£.) In the ending pa ; as, ?,vpd, yfiipd, x&pd, &c, with the 
exception of those words the penult of which is either long by 
being a diphthong (except av), or v, or by pp ; as, /uolpd, irelpd, 
Soreipd, fi&xaipa, yi(pvpd, Uvppd, Kippd. — But eraipd, r:a7McTpa, 
AWpd, Qaidpd, KoXkvpd, have the final a long. 

III. Accent, also, is frequently a guide to the quantity of the final 
vowel. Thus, the a is long in all Oxytons (i. e., words having the 
acute on the last syllable) ; as, expand, dyopd : and in all Paroxy- 
tons (i. e., words having the acute on the penult) ; as, rjfiepd, cofyia : 
except (iid, Uvpfid, Kipf)d, and those nouns that have the genitive in 
VC ; as, |6Z£a, fifyg. 

If, on the other hand, the acute be on the antepenult, that is, if 
the word be a proparoxyton, the final syllable is short ; as, /udxaipa, 
rpiaivd, rekeia, avoid. And, again, the final syllable is short if the 
word be a dissyllable, and have the penult circumflexed ; as, fiolpd, 
fiovad. 

IV. The Vocative termination in a is always short in the case 
of substantives in vg, and always long in that of substantives in ag. 

E 2 



54 



DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 



The quantity, otherwise, is regulated by that of the nominative ; as, 
nostra, from TToTiirng : veav'id, from veavidg. 

V. The Dual ending in a is always long ; as, doge, from dotja : 
{loved, from fiovcd. 

VI. The Accusative ending in av is regulated, as to its quantity, 
by that of the nominative ; as, fiovcdv, from /iovgu : but x^P av i from 
Xupd. 

VII. The ending ag is long every where in this declension ; as, 
Tpani^dg, accus. plur. of rpdne^d : 6 veavidg, rovg viavidg, rijg <jo(f>[dg, 
rag otnidg. But observe that the accusative plural of the third de- 
clension has the final ag short ; as, &r}pdg, KoXatcag. 

DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 
L The Dorians use a for n in all the terminations ; as, rifid, rifidg 9 
Tifxa y TLfxdVy TLfid. So, izoXiTdg for tzoXlttjc : reTiuvdg, Doric, for re- 
luvng. The Epic writers and Ionians, on the other hand, put n for 
a ; as, ootytn, Gocplr/g, Gotpln, coytnv, ooyin, for ootyid, oocp'idg, &c. So, 
&ypn, for $r}pd : venvlng, dative venviy, accus. venvinv, voc. venven, for 
veavedg, dat. veav'ia, &c. 

Exception. But the Epic and Ionic writers retain the a in 
tied, " a goddess," gen. -&edg, dat. tied, acc. tiedv, voc. &ea : 
and also in NavaiKad, $fw, as well as in Alveluc, Avyetdg, 'Ep- 
fisldg, and some other proper names in ag pure. The vocative 
of vvfKpv, also, is in these writers vv^d instead of vvfityn. 

II. In substantives ending in eta and oia, and derived from ad- 
jectives in rig and ovg, as well as in some other feminines, the Epic 
language changes the short a of the Attic dialect into n ; as, dln- 
Osln, avaideiv, evnTioin, avian, for aXijOeLd, avaldeia, evnloidy nvlad. 
The Epic writers, also, say pin for pld : and likewise employ, at 
times, ^KvlTijj, and at others 2/civMa. The use of vvfiQa for vv/LKpn 
in the vocative has been noticed in the preceding exception. 

III. The original form of the masculine in elag appears to have 
been tag, traces of which are found in Homer ; as, 'Eppea, kiveag. 
The lengthened form elag, which had already obtained the ascend- 
ency in the Homeric poems, on account of the requirements of the 
verse, remained also in prose, with the exception of the names of 
deities, which last, in both prose and common usage, suffered con- 
traction ; as, 'EpfiTjg, Doric 'Eppdg. 

Exception. Bopeag, however, retains its original short penult, 
and never becomes Bopelag. In Ionic, however, it takes the v, 
and also undergoes contraction ; as, Boprjg. 

IV. The jEolic dialect has for the masculine, in the nominative 



DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 



55 



singular, the termination in a instead of rjg ; as, inTvord for iiznorng^ 
aixpira for mxurjrng. This resembles the short a in Latin, in the 
termination of the nominative singular masculine of the first de- 
clension ; as, poetd, agricold. The epie writers also avail themselves 
of this form, for the exigencies of the verse, in a large number of 
words, and especially in those that end in to. ; as, Qveera, rj-rvrd, 
Kvavoxalra, veGrelyyepeTa, liririjXdTd. So, also, in three propar- 
oxytons ; as, /u^rlerd, evpvoTra, tuca/cnrd. 

V. The Genitive singular of masculines in rjg and ag ended originally 
in do. This do was subsequently contracted into u (by the Dorians 
into d). In Homer we find both the uncontracted and contracted 
forms employed ; and, besides this, the poet has the license also al- 
lowed him of again opening the o (contracted from do) by insert- 
ing an €. It must be remarked, also, that this o is to be regarded as 
short in accentuation, and that the e which opens the t>-sound is al- 
ways to be pronounced with a synizesis. Thu&, we have in Homer, 
'Epuciag, genitive 'Epjzeido and 'Epueuo : Boping, genitive Bopzdo and 
Bopecj : £i>uu£ki'qg, gen. £vuu£)ido and hvuueXiu : 'Arpeldng, gen. 
'Arpelddo and 'Arpeidcu : Lk£T7jc, gen. Ik£teg) : ov66~i]g, gen. gv66t£(o. 
The genitive-ending £u was the common one with the Ionians ; as, 
7toXlt£0), 'ATpeldEcj. The Dorians, as above remarked, said Bopid, 
*A~pe'iSd. 

VI. The Genitive plural of both genders ended originally in dcov. 
This duv was subsequently contracted into fiv (bttt by the Dorians into 
dv). Homer employs both the uncontracted and contracted forms ; 
and also enjoys the privilege of changing the wh, that results by con- 
traction from doz>, into iav, by employing e as in the singular. This 
eov is to be pronounced with a synizesis. Thus, we have in Homer, 
ayopauvi aGTUGTacov, -d-£uuv and ^d-£cov, 7rap£idwv and 7rap£Luv : as also 
tzvUov, dvpiuv, dyopiuv. The termination icov remained the com- 
mon one among the Ionians ; as, Movoiuv^ tljieuv. The Dorians, 
as above remarked, said , A~p£iddv, riudv. 

VII. The Dative plural ended originally in aioi(v\ and is thus 
found in Homer, the Doric writers, the Attic poets, and even in the 
old Attic prose writers. With the Ionians, cllgl(v) changed into 
r}GL(v) and pf- and in the Attic and common language, aiai was 
curtailed to atg. These three endings, vol, yg, and atg, are found 
indeed already in Homer ; namely, atg only in the two words -d-ealg 
and d/craig : yac very often ; and yg very seldom ; as, irirpyg. (Od., 
vii., 279.) 

VIII. The Accusative plural in the iEolic dialect changes its ter- 
mination from ag to aig (just as in the second declension the JEolians 



56 



SECOND DECLENSION, 



said otg for ovg in the ending of the same case). The Dorians, on 
the other hand, changed dg into ag (just as in the accusative plural 
of the second declension they changed ovg into og ). Thus, we have 
in iEolic, ralg rt/ualg for Tag rtfiag (the iEolic dative plural being 
TLjLtalai(v\ ) : and in Doric, iz&oag Kovpdg for Ttdadg Kovpdg. This 
Doric accusative-ending is often found in Herodotus and Tyrtseus ; 
as y 'ApKvlag, Styiorag avdpag. 

SECOND DECLENSION. 
I. The Second Declension lias two terminations, namely, 
Of and ov. 

IL Nouns in og are generally masculine, sometimes fem- 
inine. 

III. Nouns in ov are neuter, except in female names of 
a diminutive form in ov ; as, i\ TXvtcepiov, u Glycerium f* 7} 
Asovtiov 7 " Leontium" 1 



Terminations. 





SINGULAR. 


BTJAL. 


PLURAL. 


Nom. 


og, OV, 


G>, 


ol, a, 


Gen. 


OV, OVy 


OLV, 


OV, (*}V, 


Dat. 




OLV, 


oig, otg, 


Acc. 


OV, ov, 


G), 


ovg, a, 


Voc. 


e and og, ov, 


w, 


ol, a. 



Remark 1. The vocative singular of words in og usually ends in e 9 
but sometimes also in og ; as, & <plle and & fiXog. In tieog the voca- 
tive is always & &eog. 

Remark 2. The s of the vocative is merely a diminished sound 
from the strong o of the nominative. For the vocative being the 
case of calling, easily admits of a shortening, in consequence of the 
strong tone placed on the previous part of the word. Compare, in 
the third declension, the vocatives o&Tsp r Hoaetdov, "AttoIXov, "Hpa- 
nleg, from the nominatives Gwrfjp, JloaetSuv, 'AttoXIov, ( HpaK?.yg. 

Remark 3. The dative plural ended originally in otei(v) ; as, -&£ot- 
glv, which form, also, is not unfrequently found even in the Attic 
poets. Nay, at times it even occurs in the Attic prose writers ; as, 
for example, in Plato. 

1. So, in Latin, u mea Glycerinm." (Ter. Andr., i., 1, 107.) — Here, 
by a species of synesis, the gender refers to the person meant, not 
to the termination of the noun. 



SECOND DECLENSION* 



57 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



Singular. 
6 A6y-of, 
rov X6y~ov, 
rw A6y-w, 
rov Xoy-ov, 
X6y~e. 



PARADIGMS. 
6 Xoyog, - 4 the word? 
Dual. 



N. tw A6y-w, 

G. tocv Xoy-otv, 

D. to£v Aoy.oiv, 

A. tw A6y-w, 

V. A6y-w. 



Plural. 

N. oZ A6y-o£, 

G. TG)V X6y-G)V, 

D. toZ^ A6y-o^, 
A. rove; Xoy-ovg, 
V. X6y-oi. 



N. 7/ 
G. T7/f 
D. Tfl 

A. t??v 
V. 



Singular. 



vrjG-og, 
vrjo-ov, 
vrja-G), 

VTjG-OV, 
VTJG-6. 



rj vr\Gog^ " the island? 
Dual. 

N. rd vrjo-G), N. <u 

G. ra?v vrjo-oiv, G. twi> 

D. t<mv vrja-oiv, D. ra^ 

A. Td vrjo-G), A. rdf 

V. vrjo-G). V. 



Plural, 
vijo-ot,, 

vrjG-oig, 
vrjG-ovg, 

V7]G-Ol. 







Singular. 
N. 6 #£-6f, 
G. rov #e-ov, 

D. TW #£-0), 

A. rov #£-oV, 



#£0£, " god." 

N. tg) #£-w, 



G. TOLV 

D. Ton> 
A. TW 
V. 



'de-olv, 

#£-W, 
#£-W. 



Plural. 

N. 0/ #£-o£, 
G. twv -de-cov, 
D. ro^ #£-0^, 
A. rovg de-ovg, 
V. <#£-o*. 



6 ayy£Aof , " fftg messenger? 



N. 6 
G. rov 

D. TW 

A 
V 



Singular. 
ayyeX-og, 
dyyeX-ov, 
ayyeX-G), 
ayyeX-ov, 
ayyek-e. 



Singular. 
N. TO OVK-OV, 
G. TOV GVIC-OV, 
D. TW GVtC-Ci), 
A. TO GVIC-OV) 
V. OVK-QV. 



Dual. 
N. tw dyy£A-w, 
G. Toh> dyyeA-oi#, 
D. to£v dyy£/L-o^v, 
A. tw dyy£A-w, 
V. ayyeX-w. 

to gvkov, " the Jig? 

Dual. 
N. TW GVfC-G), 
G. T06V GVK-OtV, 
D. TOU> GVfC-OLV, 
A. TW GVfC-G), 
V. GVtt'O. 



Plural. 
N. o£ dyyfiA-o^, 
G. twv dyy£A-wv, 
D. to?£* dyy£/l-o^f, 
A. toi>£ dyy£/Uovf, 
V. ayyeX-OL. 



Plural. 



N. Td 
G. TWV 
D. T0££ 

A. Td 
V. 



Gvfc-a, 

GVfC-CJV, 

Gvtc-oig, 
Gvfc-a,, 

GVK-a, 



58 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



to i-vXov, " the wood." 



Dual. 

N. TO) %vX-G), 

G. toIv %vX.olv, 
D. tolv i-vX-oiv, 

A. TO) i;vX-G), 
V. %vX-G). 



Plural. 
N. to gvX-a, 
G. tCjv %vX-g)v, 
D. rolg %vX-otg, 
A. rd i-vX-a, 

V. %vX'CL. 



Singular. 
N. TO $V/l-OV, 

G. toi) ^'A-ov, 

D. TG> %vX-G), 

A. to £i;A-oi>, 
V. £v/Uov. 

L Many words of this declension have a double gender, 
according as something masculine or feminine is denoted 
by them ; as, 6 i9eoc, " the god rj dsog, " tfAe goddess ;" 
6 avdpconog, " /Ae maw ?J avOpoynog, " /Ae woman 6 
apicroc, "the he-hear;" rj apicrog, 66 the she-bear" &c. 

II. Others, again, have a double gender without such 
ground ; as, 6 and ?y pivog r " £Ae s&m 6 and 77 ddfivog, 
" 2Ae sArw6 6 and ?J j3dp6crog, " iAe fyre 6 and 77 ofytoc, 
" *Ae pa*A." 

III. Some with the gender alter, likewise, the meaning; 
as, 6 fvyoc, " /Ae 2/oA:e ;" ?J £vydc, " /Ae balance ;" 6 ?7TTroc, 
" 2Ae Aorse 77 Z/tttoc, " J/ie cavalry" and also " /Ae ware 

6 XeiaOog, "pulse-porridge ;" rj XetaOog, " /Ae #o/A: 0/ an tfgg." 

IV. There are several feminines in oc belonging to this 
declension, which are properly adjectives, where a feminine 
substantive is omitted ; as, rj dtdXefcrog, " the dialect" (sup- 
ply (po)vrj) ; rj dtdfierpog, " /Ae diameter" (supply ypapfirj) ; 
77 arofiog, u the atom" (supply ovota) ; 77 avvdpog, " £Ae 
desert" (supply %<*)pa) ; 77 ovyfcXrjrog, u the senate" (supply 
j3ovXrj), &c. 

V. Certain substantives in og, by a kind of metaplasm, 
become neuter in the plural, though some of them have also 
the masculine form in the same number. Thus, 

6 (36oTpv%og, the curl ; Plural to pdarpvxa. 

6 deofjtog, the bond ; " to dsofid. 

6 ^eafjiog, the law ; "to dec [id. 

6 dfypog, the chariot-seat ; " to dicppa. 
6 KvtcXog, the circle ; " to kvkXo,. 

6 Xvxvog, the light; " to Xv^vOj. 

6 olrog, the corn ; 44 to Gira. 



CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 59 



6 (jraOfxog, 
6 [xrjpog, 
6 dpvfiog, 
7} tcsXevOog, 
d rpdxrjXog, 



the stall ; 
the thigh ; 
the coppice / 
the way ; 
the neck ; 



Plural rd Graded. 
" rd firjpd. 
" rd dpvfid. 
" rd iceXevda. 
" rd rpdx^Xa, &c. 



Remark. Buttmann correctly observes, that there exists a differ- 
ence of meaning between the neuter and masculine forms of most of 
these nouns. The neuters carry with them the idea of a whole, an 
aggregate, a unit ; as, vypa tciXevda, " the humid ways," where the 
reference is to the sea in general, as forming one great body of 
waters. So, again, with the names of substances (as ra alra), the 
neuter indicates a large number of individual parts combined to- 
gether in one grand whole ; whereas the singular would denote 
unity merely, without any accompanying idea of the multitude of 
parts as forming that same unity. In a similar way, the poets, when 
speaking of things that consist of numerous parts and form a whole, 
employ the neuter plural to express the combined ideas of unity as 
well as number. Thus, ra ($6oTpvx&, " the clustering curls" of the 
head, &c. — (Buttmann^ Ausf. SprachL, § 56, Anm. 12. — Kuhner, 
$ 264, Anm. 2.) 

CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

I. A small number of substantives, in which o or e stands 
before the case-ending, suffer contraction. 

IL The letters eo, ae, and do become ov ; as, ddeXtyideog, 
contracted d6eX(pt6ovg : vus, vov : vooc, vovg. 

III. A short vowel before a long one, or a diphthong, is 
absorbed ; as, nXocov, nXtiv : ttXooiv, nXotv. 

IV. In the neuter, a absorbs the preceding vowel, and 
becomes long ; as, darea, oard. 

V. In the vocative, ee is not contracted ; as, ddeX(j>tdee. 

Examples. 



6 nXoog, rcXovg, " the voyage" 



Singular. 
N. rcXo-og irXovg, 
G. nXo-ov rrXov, 
D. itX6-(x> ttXg), 
A. uX6-vv TcXovV, 

V. trXo-e uXov* 



Dual. 
N. irXo-tj) 
G. ttXo-oiv 
D. ttXo-olv 
A. 71X6-G) 
V. kX6-g) 



ttXgj, 
ttXoZv, 
rcXotv, 
ttXg), 

7tX(x). 



Plural. 
. ttXo-ol ttXol, 

7tX(OV, 



N 

G. ttX6'G)v 

D. nXo-ocg nXolg, 

A. nXo-ovg nXovg, 

V. nXo-oi ttXoL 



60 CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION*. 



6 voog, vovg, " the mind.'''' 



Singular. 
N. vo-og vovg, 
G. vo-ov vov, 

D. VO-G) VG), 

A. vo-ov vovVj 
V. vo-e vov. 



Dual. 

N. VO-G) VG), 

G. vo-otv 
B. vd-oiv 
A. 



VOLV, 

volv, 

VG), 
VG). 



Plural. 
N. ^o£, 

G. ^6-6}2/ VG)V 7 

D. i>d-o^ ro^*, 
A. vo-ovg vovg, 



to dareov, darovv, u the bone" 



Singular. 
N. dare-ov OOT-OVV, 
G. oare-ov dar-ov, 
D. dare-id dar-G), 
A. oare-ov dar-ovv, 
Y. oare-ov dar-ovv. 



Dual. 
N. dare-G) dar-G), 
G. dare-otv oar-olv, 
D. dare-otv dar-olv, 
A. dare-G) dar-G), 
V. dare-G) dar-G). 



Plural. 
N. dare-a dar-d, 
G. 6crre-6n> dar-£)V, 
D. dare-otg dar-olg, 
A. dare- a dar-d, 
V. dare-a dar-d. 



Remark 1. The vocative, (tt/\6>) -nvlotf, (vo>) ww, does not occur : 
Virgil, however, has Panthu as the vocative, from (ITav^oof) Tlav- 
flovf, vocative (Ila^oe) Tiavdov. In Aristophanes (Pac, 1260) we 
find, however, a shortened form of the vocative, namely, Sopvtjt, from 
Sopv^oog, " a spear- sharpener" 

Remark 2. Some proper names in vooq (contracted vovg) occur 
at times in the uncontracted form ; as, ' Altiivoog, 'Avrivoog, Tiaai- 
voog : at other times in a shortened form, in oc ; in which, to make 
amends for the loss sustained by the termination, the i or v in the 
penult is lengthened ; as, Uaalvog, Kparlvog, EWvvog. — These forms 
in of were employed in the language of common life. 

Remark 3. The accentuation of the dual nominative, accusative, 
and vocative is worthy of notice ; since we would expect here such 
forms as ttXCj, vti, barti, not ttAw, v6, baru. We must suppose, there- 
fore, that this form of the dual comes, in reality, not from contrac- 
tion, but from the dropping of the short vowel s or o before the 
long o. 

Remark 4. Substantives in eog have the acute on the last sylla- 
ble ; and hence we must write adeltyideog, dvyarptdeog, avti/jiadeog, 
not adeltyideog, &c. Those in eov, however, have the acute on the 
antepenult ; as, naveov : and in this same way, most probably, ought 
bcrtov to be accentuated, namely, ogteov. — The accentuation of the 
contracted endings ovg and ovv ; as, adeltyidovg, barovv, is, therefore, 
contrary to the general rule, which makes a circumflex originate 
from '\ The law, however, prevails, that all simple substantives 



THE ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION. 



61 



and adjectives in cog and oog must take the circumflex in contract- 
ing ; and. therefore, we have vbog =1 vovg : oarc-ov = barovv : nave-ov 
= navovv : adelfyLde-og — dde/rfidovg : xpv Ge ~°S — XP VG °v> '• u>K?.6-og 
= diT%ovg. 

Remark 5. In contracted compounds and polysyllabic proper 
names, the accent remains on the penult through all the cases ; 
even where, according to the general rule, it ought to follow the 
accented syllable. Thus, evvo-og =s evvovg : evvo-ov — evvov (not 
evvov) : evvo-oi = eiivoi, &c. The accent, however, never travels 
back to the antepenult. Thus, ttep'nr'hoi i not tteplttTiol : nanovovg, 

KdKOVOL, not K&KOVOi. 



I. Several substantives (and also adjectives) have the 
endings cog (masculine and feminine) and G)v (neuter) in- 
stead of og and ov. 

II. This is called the Attic form of declension, and re- 
tains the G) through all the cases, instead of the vowels and 
diphthongs of the ordinary second declension. It also 
subscribes i to the G), where the regular form has g) or ol. 



6), a), and ojv remain unaltered. * 

III. The vocative is like the nominative, and undergoes 
no change. 



THE ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION. 



Thus, 



ov, e, and a become 
d£, ov, and ovg " 
ol, otg, and oiv " 



cog, G)v, and og ; 
g>, G)g, and G)v. 



PARADIGMS. 



6 Xe&g, " the people. 



Singular, 



Dual 



Plural. 



N. 6 Xe-tig, 
G. tov Xe-G), 
D. T(o Xe-ti, 
A. tov Xe-Gjv, 
V. Xe-G)g. 



N. tg) Xe-G), 

G. rolv Xe-G)v, 

D. rolv Xe-G)v, 

A. r<*> Xe-G), 

V. Xe-G). 



N. ol Xe-G), 

G. tg)v Xe-G)V, 

D. rolg Xe-cog, 

A. rovg Xe-G)g, 

V. Xe-G). 



F 



62 



THE ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION. 



N. ?/ 

G. rrjg 
D. T%j 
A. T7JV 

V. 



Singular. 



«dA-6>, 



N. 6 

G. TOV 
D. TG> 
A. TOV 

V. 



Singular. 
Xay-cjg, 

Aay-6), 
Aay-o3i>, 
Aay-a>£. 



rj /caAw^, " 27ie rope." 

N. rd fcdX-G), 
G. ralv KdX'G)V, 
D. rah; «;dA-a)v, 
A. rd icdX-G), 
V. tcdX.G). 

6 Xay&g, " /7ie Aare. 

N. to) Aay-c5, 
G. rolv Xay.cov, 
D. roiv Xay-tiv, 
A. to) Xay-G), 
V. Aay-c5. 



N. ai 

G. TW^ 

D. TaZ^ 
A. rd^ 
V. 



Plural. 
rcdXte, 
icdX-(*)V, 
icdX-cog, 
icdX-odg, 
#:dA-G). 



Plural. 
N. oZ Aay-ci, 
G. tg5v Aay-wv, 
D. ro^ Aay-w^, 
A. rovg Aay-w^, 
V. Aay-ai. 



N. TO 
G. TOV 
D. TO) 
A. TO 

V. 



avwye-ojv, 

dvGjye-G), 

dvojye'G), 

dvojye-cjv, 

dv&ye-cjv. 



Plural, 
rd dv&y £.(*), 
TG)V dv(oy£'G)V, 
dvG)ye~(A)c, 
dvuy £.(*), 
dvojys-G). 



rotg 
rd 



to dv&yeov, " the hall." 

Singular. Dual. 

N. tg) dvcjye-G), N. 
G. rolv dvG)ye-(ov, G. 
D. rolv dvo)ye-G)v, D. 
A. tw dvdjys-G), A. 
V. drc6ye-a). V. 

Remark 1. This declension is called the Attic, because, when a 
word of this form has also the ordinary inflection in oc, the Attics 
generally give the preference to the former. The mode itself of de- 
clining is, in fact, a very ancient one, and embraces only a very limit- 
ed number of words. 

Remark 2. This declension originates as follows : The vowel a 
or o forms with the end- vowel, that follows immediately after it, the 
contraction and this o is usually lengthened out by inserting e 
before it. Thus, 



^ayaof, contr. layug. 

/laof, " (hug) = \tdg. 

ZAaof, " (Hug ) == iheug . 



ayrjpaog, contr. ayrjpug. 
avuyaov, " (avuyuv) = avuyeuv. 
vaog, " (vug) =zveug. 

Remark 3. Some of the words of this declension have, together 
with the regular accusative singular in uv, another in u ; as, Xayug, 
accus. \ayuv and layu. In others, again, this accusative in u is 
either exclusively, or almost exclusively employed. This is the 
case in the following names of places, Kug, Ktug, Teug , "A6ug : and 
in i] £ug " the dawn r) akug, u the threshing-floor." 

Remark 4. The neuters of some adjectives have also u in the 



DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 63 



nominative and accusative ; especially, ayrjpog, " not growing old, 11 
neuter ayrjpu : enLTTAeug, "full" neut. eiTLTthecd : vnepxpeug, "deeply in 
debt" neuter vrripxpeo. 

Remark 5. Words, which otherwise belong to the third declen- 
sion, are often declined after this particular form ; as, Mlvo (from 
Mlvug, gen. Mlvuog) for Mlvua in the accusative. So, also, yekuv 
(from yefaog, yelurog) for yeXura : and r/pcov (from fjpog, r/puog) for 
Tjpua. 

Remark 6. The genitive in oo, as Heretic, gen. Ueretoo, is, ac- 
cording to some grammarians, from the form Heretic, gen. Uereti. 
More probably, however, it arises from Uereolo : thus, Uereog, gen. 
Tiereov, Uereolo, UereC)0, &c. 

Remark 7. Only one neuter in ug is assigned to this form of de- 
clension, namely, ro xp^g, " the debt." According to the ancient 
grammarians, the word is indeclinable ; and xpzug is also the form of 
the genitive and accusative singular. The plural is borrowed from 
Xpeog, and the dative singular and plural are not found. 

DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

1. Nominative Singular. Proper names in Tiaog become lag in 
Doric (genitive d, dative a) ; as, Meve?,dg, gen. MeveM, dat. MeveXa, 
for MeveXaog, &c. So NiKoMg, 'ApuealMg, 'loXdg, &c. — The ^Eolic 
dialect had the termination tg instead of og ; as, lirms for Innog : 
oiitig for olnog : ftvdtg for [Svdog : Bd/cxig for B&Kxog . 

2. Genitive Singular. In Homer we find as well the common 
ending in ov, as the Thessalian one in oto. Both these forms occur 
in Pindar. The tragic writers also employ the termination oto in 
the lyric portions of the drama. — The Dorians made the genitive in 
a) ; as, ru> vofiu for rod vdfiov. — The Ionians use eo, in the termina- 
tion of this case, for ov ; as, Kpoiceu for Kpotcrov : Bdrreo for 
Bdrrov. 

3. Dative Singular. The ^Eolians wrote the dative singular 
without the subscript (or, more correctly speaking, adscript) i ; as, 
oo(j>£> for co(j>(j. Hence the Latin dative and ablative of the second 
declension. 

4. The genitive and dative dual, in the epic dialect, end in ouv 
(for otv) ; as, tifiouv, b§Qak\LolLv, &c, for u/lloiv, bcpdaXfiolv. 

5. In the genitive plural, the Ionians and epic poets change uv 
\ into iuv ; as, Tzecahov for ireoctiv : nvpeov for irvpfiv. 

6. The dative plural ended originally in olgl(v). This form is 
found, along with that in oig, in Homer and all the poets, and like- 
wise in Ionic prose. 



64 THIRD DECLENSION. 

7. The accusative plural, among the Dorians, ended in wf, with 
which we may compare the termination ds in the accusative plural 
of the second declension of Latin words. With the Doric poets, 
however, the termination oc was also employed, like ac in the accu- 
sative plural of the first declension ; as, rug vo/iug for rove vofiovg : 
rue XvKog for Tovg hvtcovc. 

THIRD DECLENSION. 

I. The Third Declension differs from the First and Sec- 
ond principally in this, that in most instances the nomina- 
tive does not, as in the two latter declensions, affix the 
gender- sign (that is, a termination indicative of the gender), 
to the unaltered stem of the word ; but, on the contrary, 
exhibits the stem in a form more or less altered, according 
to the rules of euphony. Thus, icopat; is for icopatcg, and 
the stem is tcopait : and, again, alg is for alyg, and the stem 
is aly. 

II. The stem or root, however, though more or less alter- 
ed in the nominative, can be easily found, in most instances, 
by removing the case-sign, or termination oc, from the geni- 
tive singular. Thus, 



Xafjardg, Gen. hafjmdd.og, Stem Xafindd. 
ytyag, " ylyavr-og, " yiyavr. 

(pXeip, " <pXe6-og, " <phe6. 

alt;, " aly-og, u aly. 

tcopat; " Kopan-og, " tcopaic. 



III. The gender- sign in the third declension is for Mas- 
culines and Feminities a final c. The neuters, on the other 
hand, dispense with the gender-sign c, and exhibit merely 
the naked root or stem. But various euphonic changes 
take place as regards the gender-sign of masculines and 
feminines, and the naked stem of neuters, which will pres- 
ently be explained. 

IV. As the nominative merely takes a c in masculines 
and feminines, and in neuters merely exhibits the naked 
stem, all the other cases, except the vocative, gain an addi- 
tional syllable in the shape of a casal termination, that is, 



REMARKS ON THE CASE-ENDINGS. 



65 



the word is thereby increased by a syllable. Hence the 
third declension is called by grammarians imparisyllabic, 
because the number of syllables is not equal in all the cases. 

V. The following are the casal terminations of the third 
declension, the ending of the nominative singular not being 
given, but. being reserved for subsequent explanation. 





SINGULAR. 




DUAL. 


PLURAL. 


N. 




Neut. — - 


N. 




N. eg, 


Neut. 


d. 


G. 


Of, 




G. 


oiv, 


G. G)V, 






D. 


r, 




D. 


OLV, 


D. ol(v), 






A. 


v or a, 


Neut. — 


A. 




A. ag, 


Neut. 


a. 


V. 


mostly like Nom. 


Neut. — 


V. 


£, 


V. eg, 


Neut. 


d. 



REMARKS ON THE CASE-ENDINGS. 
(A.) NOMINATIVE SINGULAR. 

I. Masculines and feminines of the third declension are 
entitled, in the nominative singular, to a final c, as has al- 
ready been remarked. The laws of euphony, however, do 
not always allow this final c to remain appended to the 
stem, but either reject it entirely, without making any com- 
pensation for the same, or else do make a compensation 
for rejecting it by lengthening the short final or end vowel 
of the stem. 

II. If, however, the stem be such in its form and nature 
as to be capable of retaining the gender-sign c, and if this 
stem end in a consonant, then the usual changes take place 
in the appending of the gender-sign, which the laws of eu- 
phony require. 

III. Hence masculines and feminines of the third de- 
clension may be divided into three classes. 



The First Class comprises those words which admit in 
the nominative the gender-sign c ; as, 

Stem (ple6 ; N. y <j>7\,e6-g, (pXeip ; G. (j)Xe6-6g. 

" KOpaK ; " 6 KopaK-g, Kopatj ; 4 ' Kopan-og, 

F 2 



66 



REMARKS ON THE CASE-ENDINGS. 



Stem TiapLTraS ; N. 7; Iafi7ru6-g f ?iafL7rdg ; G. lajnrdS-og. 

" ycydvr ; " 6 ytyavr-g, ylydg ; " yiyavr-og. 

" ok ; " o aA-f. a/If ; " d/l-of. 

" dek-fyiv ; " 6 deAcptv-g, 6eA(j>'ig ; " Je/lda'-of. 

" j3oS (/?du, ; " o, 77 fiof-g (bdvs), f3ovg (bos) ; " j3o-6g. 

u Alf ; " 6 Atf-c, Ale; " A?-df. 

Remark 1. All the preceding euphonic changes depend, it will 
readily be perceived, on the rules heretofore laid down. 

Remark 2. In a few words we find, along with the appending 
of the gender-sign g, the lengthening, likewise, of the end- vowel 
e or ; namely, in the masculine of the perfect participle active, 
in cjg, in order to distinguish it from the neuter, and in one or 
two substantives, &c. ; as, 

Stem rervcpoT ; Nom. 6 TervfyuT-g, rervepejg • Gen. rerv^or-og. 
" Trod ; " 6 irovS-g, 1 irovg ; 2 " nod-og. 

" dAw7re/c ; " 37 aAUTtrjK-g, 2 akdizrj^ " dAwnr/cof. 

The Second Class comprises such words as in the nom- 
inative throw away the gender-sign but, as a compensa- 
tion for this, lengthen the short end-vowel of the stem, 
namely, s or 0, into 7]. Thus, 
Stem TTOiiisv ; Nom. 6 noififjv ; Gen. Troifisv-og. 

" Xeovr; " 6 (Aeonr) AeG)v; " Xeovr-og. 

" prjrop ; " 6 prjrcop ; " prjrop-og. 

" aWof ; " ald&g ; " (aWoa-o^) aldo.og . 

Remark. So we have Tcarrjp for narepg, with which last we 
may compare the Gothic fadrs, brothrs, &c. 

The Third Class comprises all such words as exhibit 
in the nominative the pure, unaltered stem ; since in these 
words the stem neither admits the gender-sign g nor length- 
ens the end-vowel. Thus, 

St. #7/p; 'N.ddrjp (for ftrip-g) ; G.^pog. 
66 alo)v ; " 6 a£o3x> ( " al&v.g) ; " al&v.og. 
" rjpcjg ; " 6 ^po^ ( " rjpcDG-g) ; " (rjpwo-og) rjpo.og. 
" dajiapr; " rj ddfiap ( " ddfiapr-g); " ddfiapr-og. 



1 . Instead of 7rd(5-?. 
3. Instead of ahtoTretc-g. 



2. Instead of 7ro£. 
4. Instead of dAw7T£f. 



REMARKS ON THE CASE-ENDINGS, 



67 



Remark 1. The nominative of the stem &jjp is not tir/p-g^ be- 
cause the laws of euphony in Greek do not tolerate pg at the 
end of a word. — The nominative of the stem alov is not (aluvg) 
aiwg, because the Greek language is accustomed to retain the 
v when o or u precedes. — The nominative of the stem da/iapr is 
not ddfiaprg, because the Greek language does not allow rg to 
stand at the end of a word. 

Remark 2. In the formation of many words, a certain arbi- 
trary use of language prevails, since, though coming from like 
stems, they do not follow one and the same law of formation. 
Some, namely, which have a vat the end of the stem, retain 
this v and reject g. Others, again, throw away v and retain g. 
This contest between v and g takes place very clearly in the 
participles. The following rules may be cited here : 

(a.) After o or o, the g regularly disappears ; as, 6 aiuv, 6 
2,ioVy ypdtyov, Tiinuv. Except, however, didovg (stem dtdovrg), 
though the JEolians said did&v : and also several substantives, 
such as odovg, rcXaKovg, &c. 

(/?.) After a, e, and v , the v regularly yields to the g in parti- 
ciples, and disappears ; as, lordg, Tvipag, rtdelg, rvtydeig, deinvvg, 
&c, for iaravrg, rvipavrg, ridevrg, deitcvvvrg, &c. — This com- 
monly takes place, also, after a, i, v, in substantives and adjec- 
tives ; as, ifjiag, /xeTiag, frig, defytg, $6pnvg. Except substantives 
in av, genitive dvog ; as, iracdv, Tzcuavog. 

After e and rj, however, the v remains in substantives ; as, 
fiTjv, ?ufZ7jv. Except 6 ure'cg, gen. tcrsvog, and Roman names in 
qg, gen. evTog ; as, Ovd?i7jg, gen. -evrog, Valens. 

IV. Neuters exhibit in the nominative the pure stem of 
the word. The rules of euphony, however, not allowing 
a word to end in r, we find, in this case, either the r thrown 
away, or changed into the kindred consonants a or p. 
Thus, 



Trenepc, Nom. nenepl ; 

(jeAac, " askag ; 

cafog, " aacpsg ; 

dpaev, " apoev ; 

GG)fiar, " (GGjfiar) atifia ; 

Xaptevr, " (xapcevr) %apUv ; 

rerv(j)OT f " (rervcpOT) rervcpog ; 



Gen. TTETTEpi.og, or e-og . 

" (osXacr-og) asXa-og* 

" (oa(])EG-og) aacpE'Og. 

" apoEV-og. 

" ocjfxar.og. 

" xapiEvr-og. 

u TETV(j)6T*Og. 



68 



REMARKS ON THE CASE-ENDINGS. 



rspar, Nom. (repar) repag ; Gen. repar-og. 
rjnar, " (fjnar) rjnap ; " 7/7raT-oc. 

Remark. The stem nvp is lengthened in the nominative, nvp, 
contrary to rule ; as, to 7rvp, genitive nvpog . 

(B.) THE OTHER CASES. 
I. The other cases, with few exceptions, are formed by 
adding the particular case-endings to the stem. Thus, 
stem icopafc; Nom. sing, fcopag; Gen. fcopafc-og; Nom. plur. 
Kopatc-eg. 



II. DATIVE PLURAL. 
Rule. In the Dative Plural of words whose stem ends in 
a consonant, the syllable 01, on being added to the stem, 
gives rise to the same euphonic changes as those we have 
already seen take place in the nominative of such words. 
Thus, 

<j>Xeb-OL becomes <pXei/;L Xeovr-Gt becomes Xeovol. 
ytyavT-at " ylydac. iraid-Gi " rraiot. 
Kopatt-oi " Kopa^L. Xaiindd-ai " Xapndoi. 
ddovr-oi " odovoL. "Apad-oi " "Apaipi. 



III. ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 
Rule L The Accusative Singular, in masculines and 
feminines in eg, vg, avg, and ovc, whose stem ends in t, v 9 
av y and ov, has its termination in v. Thus, 

Stem ttoXl ; Nom. noXig ; Accus. ttoXlv. 
" vaf ) ; " vafg j[ ; u vafv > . 
" vav S ; " vavg S ; a vavv S . 
" fioTpv, " fiorpvg; " (36rpvv. 
« pof ) ; « /J6/c > ; <( fiofv ) . 
" j3ov S ; " fiovg ) ; " jSow $ . 
Rule 2. But masculines and feminines whose stem ends 
in a consonant, make the accusative singular in a. Thus, 



REMARKS ON THE CASE-ENDINGS. 



69 





1\ Oul. (pAtTjJ , 


4 £ is s\ r\ j-t is • 

ICOpCbtC , 


tcopag , 


u Xafinad ; 




4 4 yiyavr ; 




" deX<piv ; 


44 6eX(ptg ; 



Accus. <j)Xe6-a. 
44 Kopan-a. 
44 Aaprad-a. 
44 yLyavT-a. 
44 6eX<j)lv-a. 

Exception. Barytons, however, of more than one syllable, 
whose stem ends in a T-sound, take the form in v, in prose, in- 
stead of that in a. Thus, 

Stem epid ; Nom. epjf ; Accus. fyw. 
" Kopvd ; " /copuc ; " nopvv. 

" bpvid ; " opwf ; " bpviv. 

In poetry we have the forms eptd-a, KopvO-a, xupir-a, opvid-a ; 
and, with regard to %apLq, it must be observed that, when one 
of the Graces is meant, the form Xdpira is always employed ; 
and that, in poetry, x^P LTa is sometimes, also, used in place of 

Remark 1. Monosyllabic and polysyllabic oxytons have the accu- 
sative only in a ; as, novg (for irod-g), accus. irod-a : kTiirlg, accus. 
k%md-a : ^Za^f, accus. x^apvd-a, &c. But ttoTivttovc, a compound of 
novq, makes both Tro/^viroda and 7to7iv7tovv (for nolvnov) : and /c/lejc, 
gen. k/U^-o£, has nlelv in the accusative, not Kleld-a. 

Remark 2. The preceding exception and remark depend on the 
following principle : The Unguals 6, r, being letters easily sus- 
ceptible of change, fall away before g ; and hence, in the polysylla- 
bic barytons mentioned above, the stem, on parting with its T-sound, 
has the form of one ending in a vowel. The accusative, therefore, 
terminates in v. But, in the oxytons mentioned under Remark 1, 
the tone that rests on the last syllable keeps the T-sound from fall- 
ing away in forming the accusative, and therefore this case termi- 
nates in a. 



IV. VOCATIVE SINGULAR. 
Rule. The Vocative Singular, as a general rule, is form- 
ed like the stem, subject, however, to the laws of euphony ; 
as, Stem daifiov ; Nom. daipov ; Gen. daifiov.oc; ; Voc. 
dalpov. 



70 



REMARKS ON THE CASE-ENDINGS. 



I. The Vocative is formed like the Stem in the 

FOLLOWING INSTANCES .* 

(I.) When the end- vowel s or o of the stem is length- 
ened in the nominative into 7] or 6), then the short stem- 
vowel reappears in the vocative ; as, 

da,Lfj,G)v, Gen. Satfiov-og, Voc. daZfiov. 

prjTGip, " prjrop.og, " prjTOp. 

yepov, " yepovr-og, " yepo vr (Euph. yepov).^ 

fJLTjTTJp, " fJ,7]T£p-Og, " jJLTjTep. 

2d) Kpdr7]g, " ItOfcpdre-og ; " Zuftpareg. 

Exception 1. Oxyton substantives (not adjectives) retain the 
lengthened vowel in the vocative ; as, TzoLfirjv : Gen. iroifiev-oc : 
Voc. noifirjv (not iroifiev). But from this, again, must be ex- 
cepted the three oxytons, izarrip, avyp, and Saijp, which in the 
vocative take the short stem- vowel, though with the accent 
thrown back ; as, c5 Trdrep, avep t daep. 

Exception 2. The three substantives, 'AttoHuv (gen. 'Atz6?i- 
luv-og), TiooEiduv (-wvof), and Gcorrjp (-^poc), shorten, according 
to the analogy of the nouns given under § 1, the end- vowel of 
the vocative ; but in so doing they violate the general rule, 
since the end-vowel of the root is a long one. The accent, 
however, is thrown back. Thus, c5 "Ano^ov, J16oeidov y aurep. 
— According to this analogy, the name 'Hpa.KAe?ic (stem 'Hpa- 
Kkeeg) is even shortened in the vocative "Hpa/cAec. 

(2.) Adjectives ending in dg, genitive -avog, as well as 
those adjectives and participles whose stem terminates 
in vr, have in the vocative a form like that of the neuter, 
or, in fact, of the stem itself. Thus, 

fisXag, G. [leXav.og, N. and V. fxeXdv. 

Xapteig, " %apitVT.og, " " " x a P iev (f° r X a P^ evr )- 

dsticvvg, " deticvvvT-og* " " " deutvvv (for detfcvvvr). 

So, likewise, the substantives in dg, genitive -avrog, 
form the vocative in dv (for avr) ; as, 

yiydg, Gen. ycyavr-og , Voc. ytydv (for yiyavr). 
Kdkxdg, " KaXxavr-og, " KaA%av. 
Alar " Atavr-oc, " Aldv, 



REMARKS ON THE CASE-ENDINGS. 



71 



Some substantives, however, of this class, along with 
r throw away, also, v in the vocative ; as, "ArAac : Gen. 
"ArXavr-og : Voc. "AtAcj : II oXvddfiag, Voc. Ilokvddfid. 

(3.) Substantives in ig, vg, avg, evg, and ovg form the 
vocative like the stem, since they throw away the final g 
of the nominative ; as, fidvng, voc. fiavn : TTpeadvg, voc. 
npeo6v : Zsvg, voc. Zev, &c. 

Exception. Nouns in ic, genitive ivog, retain tg in the voca- 
tive ; though some of them form the vocative like the stem ; as, 
laTiaple, gen. l>a?iafj,lvog ) voc. c5 Xdhafcig : deTicpic, gen. deTi^lvog^ 
voc. & deXcpLv. 

(4.) Finally, the vocative is formed like the stem in all 
words which exhibit the pure stem in the nominative ; as, 
nom. $r]p, voc. & -&r\p : nom. alcov, voc. & alcov, &c. 



II. The Vocative is formed like the Nominative in 

THE FOLLOWING INSTANCES : 

(1.) The vocative is like the nominative in most words 
whose stem ends in a consonant that can not, by the rules 
of euphony, terminate a word ; as, 

Stem (f)G)r; Nom. (pdog, Voc. <f>G)g, not 0c5. 
" vi(f> ; " vlipj " vhf}, " vl, 
" aapic ; u odp%, u odp^ " adp. 
" 6)7T; " <Jty, «« " w. 

The reason is this, that if the vocative were formed 
in such words by dropping the final consonant of the 
stem, then such forms as 0g3, vi 7 &c, would leave the 
root or stem quite uncertain. 

(2.) The noun avat;, " a king" forms the vocative, in 
the common language, like the nominative ; as, (o avai;, 
or (bva^. In the solemn language of prayer, however, it 
has g> ava, or &va. — This word ought to make its voca- 
tive ava/cr, but the laws of euphony do not tolerate either 
a t or a k at the end of a word. 



72 



REMARKS ON THE CASE-ENDINGS* 



All participles make the vocative like the nominative. 
The only exception to this rule is apx 0)V when used as a 
noun, which then makes in the vocative ap%ov : but other- 
wise apx^v. 



III. The Vocative is formed neither like the 
Stem nor the Nominative. 

Substantives in g) and G)c, whose stem ends in og 9 form 
the vocative like neither the stem nor the nominative, 
but, contrary to all analogy, in ol ; as, 

Stem rjxog ; Nom. rfx& ; Gen. (for ^%<5<y-of). ) 

Voc. i]xoi (for rjxoa-^rjxO'l). ) 
Stem aldog ; N. aldojg ; G. aldo-og (for aldoo-og). ) 

V. aldol (for aldoo-i, aldo-'i). S 



PARADIGMS. 

I. All words of the Third Declension, whether relating 
to persons or to things, are divided into two great classes. 

II. The First Class consists of those which have a con- 
sonant before the ending oc of the genitive singular ; as, 
n6pa% (i. e., tcopafcg), genitive fcopaicog. 

III. The Second Class consists of those which have a 
vowel before the ending og of the genitive singular; as, 
(3ovg, genitive f3o-6g. 

IV. Words of the first class are those, therefore, whose 
stem ends in a consonant. Words of the second class, on 
the other hand, are those whose stems end, in some in- 
stances, in a vowel, in others in a consonant ; as, ntg^ gen. 
Ki-6g (stem tec) ; creAac, gen. oeXa-og (for oeXaa-og), (stem 
oeXag). 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 73 



(A.)— WORDS WHICH HAVE A CONSONANT BEFORE THE 
ENDING GC IN THE GENITIVE SINGULAR; THAT IS, WORDS 
WHOSE STEM ENDS IN A CONSONANT, 

I. The Nominative Singular affixes g to the Stem. 

I. When the stem ends in A, the g is affixed without any 
alteration of the former; as, stem aX ; nora. sing. 6 aXg, 
gen. aX-og, dat. plur. aX-ol. 

II. When the stem ends in a P-sound or K-soimd, name- 
ly, in (3, 7r, or in y, yy, a, % ; then /J, 7r, (f> blend with c, 
in the nominative singular and dative plural, into ib ; and 
% yy, % into in accordance with the rules previously 
laid down. 



rj XalXaip, 44 the storm" 



Singular. 
N. i\ XalXdxp, 
G. tt/c XalXan-og, 
D. r^f XalXdn-i, 
A. t?)v XaiXdir-a, 
V. XalXdip. 



Dual. 
N. to. XalXaTT-Ei 
G. Tah> XcuXdn-oiv, 
D. ran; XaiXdn-otv, 
A. rd XalXdn-e, 
V. XaiXdrce. 



Plural 
N. at XalXdn-eg, 
G. twv AatAa7r-6)v, 
D. Tate XatXdipi(v), 
A. rd^ XaiXdn-ag, 
V. XatXdn-eg. 



Singular. 
N. 6 KOpdi;, 



G. rov 

D. TW 
A. TO** 

V. 



tcopafc-og, 
tcopdn-i, 
Kopdic-a, 
icopdg. 



6 Kopa^ " //te raven" 



Dual 
tg) tcopdn-e, 

fCOp&fC-OLV, 
KOpdfC-OLV, 

Kopdfc-e, 
Kopdn-e. 



N. 

G. rotv 

D. TOZV 
A. TW 

V. 



Plural 
N. o/ Kopdfc-eg, 

G. T65v KOp&tC-G)V, 

D. to?c rc6pd^L(v), 
A. rove ttopdfc-ag, 
V. Kopdn-eg. 



Singular. 
N. 6 Xdpvy%, 



6 Xdpvyg, " Z7*e throat" 



G. rov 
D. TGJ 
A. TOV 

V. 



Xdpvyy-og, 
Xdpvyy-L, 
Xdpvyy-a, 
Aapvy%. 



Dual. 
N. tco Adptryy-e, 
G. to£x> Xapvyy-otv, 
D. Ton' Xapvyy-oiv, 
A. TW /tapz;yy-£, 
V". Xdpvyy-s. 
G 



Plural 
N.oi Xdpvyy-eg, 
G . twv Xapvyy-cjv, 
D.TOtc ?^dpvy£t(v), 
A. Ttfvc Adpvyy-a^, 
V. Xdpvyy-eg. 



74 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 



Singular. 
N. 7] $pli; r 
G. rrjg 
D. r%i 

A. T7]V 

V. 



rplx-a, 



r) &ptg, " the hair" 
Dual. 



N. rd rptx-e, 

G. ralv TpLx-otv, 

D. ralv rpLX'Oiv, 

A. rd rpcx-s, 

V. rplx-e. 

III. When the stem ends in a T -sound, that is, in 6, r 7 
fcr y # y or vd, this T- sound is thrown out before o in the 
nominative singular, and also in the dative plural. 



Plural. 
N. at_ rpix-eg, 
G. rcov ~pix-(ov 7 
D. ralg dpL^i{v) T 
A. rag rpix-ag, 
V. rpix'sg. 



Singular. 
N. r) Xafindg, 
G. rr\g ka[jLira3-og, 
D. rq XafiTcdd-i, 
A. rrjv Xafindd-a, 
V. Aajjirdg. 



7j Aafirrdg, " torch." 
Dual. 
N*rd Xapardd-e, 
G.ralv kaurrdd otv, 
D.raiv hap,Trdd olv, 
A.rd Xafircdd-e, 
V. Xafindd-E. 



Plural. 
N. at AafAirdd-eg, 
G. tcov Xa{i7Tdd-(*)v, 
D. ralg XafA7rd-<7L(v) 
A. Td$* Xaundd-ag, 
V. XaiiTrdd-eg. 



Singular. 
N. ?} icopvg, 
G. T77£ icofwd-og, 
D.rq ttopvO-L; 
A. T7)i> tcopvO-a, & 

tcopv.v, 
V. nopvg. 

Singular. 
N. 6 opvlg, 
G. roi; bpvlO-og> 
D.tg3 bpvld-L, 
A. tov 6pvl6-a, & 

opvtv, 
V. bpvlg. 



N. 6 
G. ro£> 
D.tgj 

A. TOV 

V. 



Singular. 

v v 

avaf, 
dvatiT-og, 
dvanr-L, 
avarcr-a, 
avat;, and? 
ai^a. , } 



?J Kopvg, " helmet 
Dual. 
Ni rd icopvd-e, 
G. Tah> tcopvO-oiv, 
D. ratv fcopvd-oiv, 
A. Ta tcopvQ e, 
V. Kopvd-e. 

6 bpvtg, " /Ae bird" 

Dual 
N. t6l) bpvW-e, 
G. roZv opvW-oiv, 
D. ron> opvld-oiv, 
A. rw bpvl6-e, 
V. bpvlQ'E. 

6 avai-, " king." 

Dual. 
N. ro) dvatiT-e 
G. roti' avdnr-OLV, 
D. rotv dvdttr-oiv, 
A. to) dvatcr-e, 
V. dvafcr-s. 



Plural. 
N. at Kopvd-eg r 

G. KOpvd-G)V> 

D. ra^- K,6pv-oi{v), 
A. ra^ tcopvd-ag, 
V. tcopvd-eg. 



Plural 

N. ot bpvld-eg, 

G. rwv 6pvt6-G)v > 

D. Tot£ bpvi.ot,(v), 

A. roi^ bpvlQ-ag> 

V. bpvlQ-eg. 



N. ot 
G. tg3v 

D. TOt^ 

A. tox>£* 
V. 



Plural 

avafCT-eg r 
dvdfcr-o)v y 
dva%L(v), 
dvanr-ag 7 
avarcr-eg. 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



75 



Singular. 
N. 7] eXfuvg, 
G. rrjg eXficvd-og, 
D. eXizivO-i, 
A. rr\v eXfitvd-a, 
V. eXfiivg. 



Plural 

N. ai eXjj,ivd>eg, 
G. tCjv eXfiivQ-wv, 
D. ralg eXpi-Gifr)^ 
A. rag e/^fitvd-ac, 
V. eX\Livd-zg. 



fj eXfiivg, " ^Ae worm." 

Dual. 
N. rd eXfiLvO-e, 
G. ra£V eXfjLLvd-OLv, 
D. Tau> eXfilvd-OLV, 
A. rd eXjuvd-s, 
V. eXfuvQ-e. 

IV. The stems of the neuters belonging to this class end 
in t and /cr» Since, however, the laws of euphony do not 
tolerate either r or tcr at the end of a word, they are either 
omitted, or else the t is changed into g. 

V. In the stems yovar and dopar, the end-vowel a passes, 
in the nominative singular, into v. In the dative plural the 
r falls away before at. 



to otifia, " the body" 



Singular. 
N. to (TWjUa, 
G. rov OG)fj,ar-og, 
D. tg> aojfiar.c, 
A. to acofxa, 



Dual. 
N. To) ou)(j,ar-e, 

G. TOZV OOJfjLCLT-OLV, 



Plural. 

N. Td OG)fia,T-a, 

G. T6JV (TG^dT-toV, 



D. Toh> OG)fj,dr.0LV,J). rolg adjixa-at(v), 



A. T(t) 

V 



GG)fjb<LT-a. 



Singular. 
N. to yoi>v, 
G. toi) yoVdT-oc, 
D. tg> yovaT-*, 
A. to ydi>i;, 
V. yoVv. 



to yow, 

Dual. 
N. to) ydva* 



knee" 



G. to^v yovcrr-oa', 

D. tolv yovdr.otv, 

A. to) yovaT-e, 

V. yovar-e. 



Plural. 
N. Td yovar -a, 
G. Tah> yovdTGtt', 
D. rolg yova oi{y) y 
A. Td yovaT-a, 
V. yovar-a. 



to ydXa, " /ta milk" 



Singular. 
N. to yd/la, 
G. tov ydXaiCT'Og, 
D. tw ydXatCT-i, 
A. to yd/la, 
V. ydAa. 



Dual. 
N. to) ydXaKT-e, 
G . to?i> yaXdnT-OLV) 
D. too> yaXdnT'OLV, 
A. TCt) ydXaKT-e, 
V. ydXafCT-e. 



Plural. 

N. Td ydAa/rra, 
G. tg5v yaXdfcr.GJV 
D. to£c ydAa^(v), 
A. Td ydXaiCT-a, 
V. ydXafcra. 



1. Along with ehfiiot we also find eXpitji, probably from the stem 



76 PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



to repag, " the prodigy" 

Dual. 
N. to) repar-e, 
G. toZV repdr-oiv, 
D. to£v repdr-oiv, 
A. to) repar-e , 
V. repar-e. 

Remark. The word repaf, however, is usually contracted in 
the plural, after omitting r, into repa, reptiv. Thus, repara, re- 
paa, repa : repdruv, repaov, repCov. 



Singular. 
N. to repag, 
G. Toi) repar-og, 
D. tg5 repar-t, 
A. to repag, 
V. repag. 



Plural. 
N. Td repar.a, 
G. twv repdr-G)V 1 
D. to£c repa-Gi(v), 
A. Td repar-a, 
V. repar-a. 



the ear" 



Singular. 

N. to o£c, 
G. to?) <jt-6c, 

D. TGJ <OT-£, 
A. TO 

V. 



OVf. 



TO OV£*, 

Dual. 
N. TO) WT-g, 

G. toZV wt-oha 



D. TOiV 
A. TO) 

V. 



0)T-0^, 

c5t-£, 



Plural, 
N. Ta wT-a, 

G. TWV G)T-G)V, 

D. to£c w-ot(v), 
A. Td wr-a, 
V. WT-a. 



VI. The words to yepac, u a reward ;" to yrjpag, " aid 
age ;" to tcpeag, " flesh" and to fcepag, " the horn" omit the 
t in all the numbers, and then suffer contraction in the 
genitive and dative singular, and in the whole of the dual 
and plural, with the exception of the dative plural. In ne- 
pac, however, the regular forms with the r are found as well 
as the contracted ones. 

to tee par, " the horn" 

Singular. 

N. to Kepag. 

G. rov icepar-og, by dropping t, rcepa-og, contr. Kepog. 



D. TO) 
A. TO 

V. 



ttepar-i 

Kepag. 

icepag* 



Dual. 



N. 
G. 



tg) rcepar-e 
rolv ttepdr-oiv 



D. rolv fcepdr-oLv 
A. to) ae par. e 
V. ttepar-e 



nepa-L 



nepa-e . 
Kepd-oiv 
Kepaoiv 
Kepa-e . 
fit pa -e . 



tcepa. 



nep-a. 

Kep-(x>v. 

tcep-tiv. 

nep-a. 

nep-a. 



From wf. Stem o>r; Norn, wr-c; «. e., <jc changed to e%, 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 77 



Plural 

N. ra fcepdr-a, by dropping r, tcepd-a, contr. Kepa. 
G. tc5i; Kepdr-G)v .... Kepa^v . . Kepcov. 
D. ro^ Kepd-at(y). 

A. Td Kepdr-a Kepa-a . . /cepa. 

V. Kepar-a Kepd-a . . #epd. 



N 
G 
D 
A. 

V. 



to /epeag, " the flesh" 
Singular. 

to fcpsag. 

rov Kpedr-og, by dropping r, Kped-og, contr. Kpecjg. 



TCl) 
TO 



Kpea- 



Kpea. 



tcpea-oLV 
Kped-OLV 
Kped-e . 
fcped-e . 

Kped-a . 
xped-ov . 

Kped-a . 
Kped-a . 



Kpear-i .... 
/eosac. 

N. T(j Kpear-e Kped-e 

G. tou> Kpedr-oiv .... 
D. to£v Kpedr-otv .... 

A. tco Kpedr-e 

V. Kpedr-e 

P/wraZ. 

N. Td Kpedr-a 

G. tuv Kpedr-odv .... 
D. roig Kped-ot(v) 

A. Td Kpedr-a 

V. Kpedr-a 

Remark 1. The Attics said Kspa?, Kepdrog, as they did (f>peap, 
$p£dTog. (Maltby, Thes. Grcec. Poes., Obs., p. lxxx. — Herm. ad 
Soph., Track., 516.) Hence we have Kepdre in Euripides (Bacch., 
919. — Elms., ad loc), and tcfpdat in ^Eschylus (ap. Athen., xi., 
p. 476, c). The same quantity occurs in one of the so-called 
odes of Anacreon (ii., 1), namely, Kepdra; and, in the pseudo- 
Orpheus (de Lapid., 238), the ordinary text has Kspda. In Ho- 
mer, on the contrary, we have Kepdai, fcepaov ; but, perhaps, in 
these and similar instances, we ought, as Blomfield suggests, to 
read aspect, icepeov, &c. (Obs. ad Matth., G. G., p. 158.) We 
find, however, in Epic, the ending of the plural generally short- 
ened ; as, yspa, cuind, Kpza, though certainly long in Attic. 
{Kuhner, § 278, Anm. 2. — Compare Buttmann, Ausf. Gr. Spr., 
vol. i., p. 200.) 

G 2 



Kpea. 

Kpecpv. 

Kpe&v. 

Kpea, 

Kpea. 



Kpea. 
Kpe&v. 

Kpea. 
Kpea. 



78 PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



Remark 2. Many stems in r change this letter in the nomina- 
tive singular into p ; as, to rjnap, " the liver;" to vdop, " water;" 
to <jtc6p, " dung." It would seem, indeed, that the p originally 
belonged to the stem, as we may infer from the Sanscrit, where 
we find the neuter jarkt, " the liver," corresponding to the 
Greek jjirtp and the Latin jecur ; and hence, no doubt, rjizar-oq, 
the genitive, was originally yirapT-oe, as in Sanscrit the genitive 
is jarkt-as. We may farther compare, as regards the p in vdup, 
the Indian udra, " water," in sam-udra, " the sea." (Bopp, Ver- 
gleich. Gramm., p. 180.) The change of a into a, however 
(vdapT, vdap, vdup), is a remarkable one. 

to qirap, Gen. yiraT-oc, &c, Plural, yTraT-a, ijTrdT-tov, 7j7ra-Gt{v). 
to vSop, " vdaT-og, &c, " vdaT-a, vddr-ov, vda-GL(v). 

TO GKUp, " GKCLT-dq, &C, " GK&T-Q,, GKCLT-UV, GKGL-GL(v). 

VII. When the stem ends in v, or in vr, these letters are 
thrown out before the c in the nominative singular and da- 
tive plural ; with this difference, however, that, when v is 
thrown out, the quantity of the end-vowel remains un- 
changed ; whereas when vr are rejected, the end-vowel, if 
short, changes to a long. Thus, 



Singular. 

N. fj pig, 

G. rrjg plv-og, 

D. rjj piv4, 

A. rrjv plv-a, 

V. ptv. 



f\ pig, " the nose" 

Dual. 
N. rd piv-e, 
G. ralv plv-olv, 
D. ralv plv-olv, 
A. rd plv-e, 
V. plv-e. 



Plural. 
N. at plv.eg, 
G. rtiv plv tiv, 
D. ralg pl-ci(y), 
A. rag plvag, 
V. plv-eg. 



6 deXtytg, " the dolphin" 



Singular. 
N. 6 6eX<pig, 
G. rov deXtylv-og, 
D. tg> 6eX(plvH, 
A. rov deXtylv-a, 
V. 6sXcf)ig, & , 
6sk(piv. 



Dual. 

N. to) 6eX(f)LV'8, 
G. roo> deXcptv.otv, 
D. Ton; deX(j}lv T oiv, 
A. tw SeX(j)lv-e, 
V. 6eX<plv-e. 



Plural. 
N. o£ deXcptv.eg, 
G. tg5i> deXcptv-ov, 
D. ro£c 6eX(pl cu(v) 
A . to£>£ deX<f)lv ac, 
V. 6eXcf)lv.sg. 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION". 



79 



Singular. 

N. 6 ytydg, 

G. T0V 



D. ru> 
A. rbv 
V. 



yiyavT 
ylyavT 
yiyavi 
ylydv. 



•a, 



6 ylydg, " the giant" 

Duah 
N. to) ytyavT-e, 
G. toZV ytydvr-oiv, 
D. Ton/ ytyavT o£i>, 
A. tg) ylyavT-e, 
V\ ylyavT-s. 



Plural. 
N. o£ yLyavT-eg, 
G. rw^ yiydvr-cjv, 
D. ro^ ytydm^v), 
A . ro£ £ y t y a - a^, 
V. ylyavT-eg. 



Singular. 

N. 6 6(5o^^, 

G. rot) 6$6Vr-o£\ 

D. tco 6(5oVr-£, 

A. rov odovT a, 

V. odo?;c. 



6 odovg, " Z7*e tooth" 

Dual. 
N. TG) d6oVTE, 

G. to^v 6dovT-on>, 

D. toZv o&wt-o^, 

A. tw odovT-e, 

V. odovT-e. 



Plural. 

N. ol odovT.eg, 
G. tc5i^ 6d6vT-ojv, 
D. toI^ odoi) 
A. Tovg odovT-ag, 
V. (WdVr-££\ 

Remark 1. In place of bSovc, the Ionians said q66v, gen. 666v- 
roc. 

Remark 2. The substantive 6 ktelc, gen. ktevoc, " como 
the numeral elr; 3 gen. ev-4jf, " one" and the adjectives fie?Mc and 
ra^df, gen. lleI&v-oc, Taldv-oc, have the naturally short stem- 
vowel e and a changed, after the rejection of g, into a long or 
a. Thus, stem kt£v, nom. kte'lq : stem nom. tic : stem /ze- 
^.av, nom. iieXdc : stem ralav, nom. raAdf. Theocritus, how- 
-ever, on one occasion has tu?Mc (Idyll, ii., 4). But here, in all 
probability, we ought to read rdldv in the vocative. (Kiess- 
ling, ad loc.) 

Remark 3. Roman names in ens, ent-is, have in Greek, in the 
nominative, the termination rjg in place of eic ; as, OjJ^c (stem 
K2.rjfj.evT), gen. KXt/lievT'Oc, Clemens; Ovd%r}£ (stem OvclTlevt), 
gen. OvllIevtoc, Valens. The Latin adjectives in ens, ent-is, of 
which Plutarch introduces several into the Greek language, end 
in nvc ; as., iroTrjve, poteris ; aaTvinug, sapiens. 

Remark 4. The neuters belonging here are adjectives and 
participles ; as, 

to ileKclv, gen. fieTiavoc, from fjeluc. 

to (xapLEvr) xap'isv, gen. x a P L£VT0 Ci from ^opte^. 

to (TvtfavT) Tvipav, gen. rvipavToe, participle of tv7tt6>. 

to (6elkvvvt) Seikvvv, gen. Szlkvvvtoc, part, of dslKw/tii. 
and also the pronouns H interrogative, and tc indefinite (stems 
tj.v and tlv\ gen. tiv-oq and tlv-6c ; dat. plur, ti-gl and rl-m. 



SO PARADIGMS OF THE TH CRD DECLENSION. 



II. The Nominative Singular throws away g from the 

Stem. 

I. The Nominative Singular rejects the gender- sign g 9 
but, as a compensation for this, it has the short end- vowel 
of the stem, namely, e or o, lengthened into rf or g>. 

II. The stem ends in v, or vr, or p ; and when it ends in 
v, this v is thrown out before the ending at of the dative 
plural, the quantity of the end- vowel of the stem remaining 
unchanged ; whereas, when the stem ends in vr, the letters 
vr are also thrown out before at, but then the end- vowel, if 
short, is made long. Thus, from Trot^ey-at we have Trotfie- 
at : but from Xiovr-at we have Xeovat. 

III. When the stem ends in p, it is appended at once, 
without any change, to the at of the dative plural ; as, 
alQep-ai, prjrop-at. 



Singular. 
N. 6 TTOtfMTjV, 
G. TOV 



A. TOV 

V. 



TTOlfJ^V'Og, 
TtOl\M£V-t y 

TTOtfiev-a,. 

7t0l[ii]V. 



6 ttoi^tjv, u the shepherd. 
Dual 

N. TG) TTOtfMSV-S, 

G. rolv rroifieV'Otv, 
D. rolv TToipev-otv, 

A. TCO TrOLjJLEV.E, 

V. Tioifiev-s* 



Plural. 
N. ol irotp£v-eg 9 
G. rojv rrotfisv. G)v 9 
D. rolg 7T0tft£-at(vy 
A. rovg notfMEV^ag^ 
V. irot^ev-eg. 



6 6at^G)v, " the divinity? 



Singular. 
N. 6 datjjb(x>v, 
G. roi) daifjbov-og, 
D. TCt> 6atfiov-t f 
A. T02> datfiov-a f 
Y d at [mov. 



Singular. 
N. 6 AeGn>, 
G. tot) Xeovr-oc, 
D. tw Xeovr-i, 
A. rov Xeovr-a, 



Dual. 
N. r<y daifiov-s, 
G. toZV 3aifMov-oiv, 
D. Ton; datfiov otv, 
A. tco daifiov-s, 
V. da,LfMOV-&. 

6 Xsg)v, " Z«oa." 

Dual. 
N. T6> Xiovr-e, 

G. ToZV AfiOVT-OfV, 

D. roZV Aed^r-o^r, 
A. Tw Xsovt-8, 



Plural. 
N. o£ SatfMOV.eg, 
G. tg3^ 6at\x6v-(dv y 
D. to?c dalfjto-at(v} 
A. rovg daijuiov-ag, 
V. Sat [mov -eg* 



Plural. 
N. of Xeovr-eg f 
G. tg)v AsoVr-Gn% 
D. to^* Xevv~m(v) 9 
A. roic Xsovr-ag, 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



81 



Singular. 
N. 6 atOrjp, 
G. rov aldep-og, 
D. rc5 aiOtp'i, 
A. rov alOep-a, 
V. alOep. 



6 aWrjp, " the sky" 

Dual. 
N. tw aldep-e, 
G. rolv aidep-otv, 
D. ron> aiOep-ocv, 
A. tg> aidep-e, 
V. aiQep-e. 



Plural. 

N. o£ aldep-eg, 
G. tw^ al6ep-(x)v, 
D. ro£c aidep-ci(v) 
A. -rot^ aldep-ag, 
V. aidip-eg. 



Singular. 
N. 6 prjTcop, 
G. toi) prjTop'Og, 
TW prjTop-i, 
rov prjrop-a, 
prjrop. 



D. 

A, 
V 



N. o£ prjrop-eg, 
G. twv prjrop-w, 
D. to^ prjrop-ai(v), 
A. rot^ prjrop-ag, 
V. prjrop-eg. 



6 prjroyp, " the orator" 
Dual. 
N. tg) prjrop~e, 
G. Toh> prjrop-otv, 
D. roh> prjrop-oLV, 
A. tw prjrop.e, 
V. prjrop-e. 

Remark 1. The substantive 77 ^e/p, "/ta hand" belongs to 
this class of nouns, and only distinguishes itself therefrom in 
that the e of the stem (^ep) is lengthened, not into 77, but into 
el ; as, ;^'p for x E PC : and it is so far irregular in that u remains 
in inflection ; as, x EL P) £ en - X El P~°S> &c, With the exception of 
the datives dual and plural, x E P-°" LV ^ x e P-^( v )- In poetry, how- 
ever, the short as well as the long form is employed, according 
to the necessities of the verse ; as, x E P°S an( ^ X EL P°C* x E P°^ v ana * 
Xstpotv, x EL P eat > (Epic x EL P EGGL ) an( i X e P™- The Ionians have 
the short form, x E P°£i X E P' C > xfy a > except in the nominative and 
accusative dual, where they employ x E ^P E - 

Remark 2. The following nouns in uv, gen. ovoc, throw out 
the v in certain of the cases, and undergo contraction ; as, 77 
etKuv, gen. eikovoc, contracted eUovg: dat. eIkovc: accus. elko- 
va> contr. eIkcj. Plural, accus. Eittovas, contr. elkov^. — So, also, 
ij aijdcjv, " the nightingale" gen. dndovog, contr. andovg : dat. 
undot (Aristoph., Av., 679) ; 77 ^e^icJwv, " the swallow," gen. X E ^~ 
dovog, &c, dat. ^e/Udot. 

Remark 3. The neuters belonging to this class are adjectives 
and participles in ev and ov ; as, to upoEv, but 6 77 dpcvv : to 
ypd(j)ov (for ypd^ovr), but 6 -ypdcjxov. 

IV. To the paradigms given above belong the following 
nouns in rjp, namely : 



6 irarrjp, " the father " 
7) p>r]Tr]p, " the mother" 
7) Gvydrrjp, 44 the daughter" 



i] yaorf)p, " the belli/" 
r) ATjfiTjrTjp, " Ceres." 
6 avrjp, " the man" 



82 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



V. These nouns differ from those given under the para- 
digms above, in omitting the e in the genitive and dative 
singular and genitive and dative plural, and inserting a be- 
fore the case -ending 01 of the last, for the purpose of soft- 
ening the pronunciation. 

VI. The word dvrjp (stem dvep) omits the e in all the 
cases of all the numbers, with the exception of the vocative 
singular, but, in order to soften the pronunciation, inserts a 
6. Thus, 



6 TTdTTjp, " the father." 



Singular. 
N. irar^p, 
G. Trarspog, Trarpog, 
D. 7TaTep-L, Trarpt) 
A. rrarsp-a, 
V. ndrep. 



Singular. 
N. [xrjTrjp, 

G. jurjTEp-og, fjLrjrpog, 

D. {ITjTEp'L, /LlTjTpli 

A. [irjTsp-a^ 

V. flfjTEp. 



Dual. 
N. Trarep-e, 
G. irarep-oiVy 
D. Trarep-oiv, 
A. Trarep-e, 
V. narsp-e. 



Plural. 
N. Tcarep-ec, 
G. 7rare/>wv, Trarpfiv, 
D. TraTp-a-Gi(v), 
A. Trarsp-ag, 
V. Tzarip-eg. 



rj fMrjTTjp, u the mother " 

Dual. 
N. [iririp-e, 

G. flTJTEp-OLV, 
D. flTjTSp-OLVy 

A. [i?iT£p-e, 
V. firjrep-e. 



Plural. 
N. fiyrep-eg, 

G. (J.7}Tep-G)V, ftTiTpfiv, 
D. {J,V,Tp-a-GL{v), 

A. [ir}TEp-a$, 
V. [irjTep-eg. 



i] ftvyarrip, " /7ie daughter" 



Singular. 
N d-vyuTrjp, 

G. -d-vyarsp-og, dvyarpog, 
D. d-vyarep-i, -&vydrpl, 
A. dvyarip-a, 
V. d-vyurep. 



Dual. 
N. dvyaTEp-E, 
G. dvyaTEp-oLv, 
D. tivyaTEp-oiv, 
A. &vyaT£p-e, 
V. -&vyaT€p-e. 



Plural. 
N. -ftvyaTEp-ec, dvydrpeg^ 
G. -&vyaTEp-uv,'&vyaTp£)v, 
D. $vyaTp-tL-GL(v), 
A. -d-vyaTEp-ag, 
V. -&vycLT£p-eg. 



Singular. 
N. (tv^p, 

G. dvip'Og, avdpog, 
D. avEp-t. dvdpiy 
A. avEp-a, uvdpa, 



6 d^7/p, " /Ae man." 

Dual. 
N. civEp-e, avdpe, 
G. avEp-oiv, avdpolv, 
D. avEp-otv, dvdpolv, 
A. avsp-E, avdpE, 
V. avEp-s, dvdpe. 



Plural. 
N. avEp-eg, avdpeg, 
G. dvEp-ov, avdpfiv, 

A. avsp-ag, avfipag, 
V. dvEp-sg, dvSpsg. 



Remark 1. Observe that navr/p, jLtrjrqp, tivyarrip, and yaarrip 
make the accusative singular without contraction. This is 
done in the case of Trartjp, to prevent its heing confounded with 



PAR A D 115 M. 3 OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



83 



warpa, gen. irdrpa.c, " a paternal land;" in the case of fi^rvp, to 
prevent its being confounded with fiyrpa, gen. ft^rpag, " a 
womb;" and in yaarr/p, to prevent similar confusion with yde- 
rpa, gen. ydorpac, "the belly of a jar " 

Remark 2. The poets, according to the necessities of the 
verse, employ either the open or contracted forms of rcaTrjp, 
fflrnp, &e. ; as, irargpoQ or irarpo^, irarept or rcarpL, irarepuv or 
Trarpuv : -&vyarep£C or dvyarpsc, d^vyarepov or dvyarpuv : firjrepi 
or [ivrpt : dvepog or avdpog, avept or dvdpl, &e. 

Remark 3. The proper stem of avrjp is i>ep, and 'a is merely 
an euphonic prefix. Compare the Sanscrit nr (nri) and the 
Persian ner, " man." With this word the defective d-prjv is 
connected, from which comes, with the doubled p, the form 
apprjv, and also apcqv, whose proper stem is fcv. The nomina- 
tive, with an altered accentuation, namely, dpprjv (gen. dpfievog, 
receives the adjectival meaning of male" &c, while the 
t;ases derived from the obsolete nominative dpfjv or dpprjv, 
namely, dpvog, apvi, upva, plur. apvez, dat. dpvdai (Epic dpveaai)i 
received the signification of "lamb," The place of the nomi- 
native singular was supplied by a/ivo^. The original stem ptv 
appears clearly in the Homeric no'kvpp'nve^. 



III. The Nominative Singular exhibits the pure Stem. 

I. The nominative singular exhibits the pure stem, the 
gender-sign c having fallen away without any change of the 
end-vowel of the stem. 

II. The stems of words of this class end in v, vr, p, and 
(in the solitary instance of ddfiap) in pr. And the declen- 
sion is an easy one, the case -endings being merely affixed 
to the nominative singular, without any change except what 
is stated in the succeeding paragraph. 

III. In the dative plural, v and vr disappear before a. 
Stems, moreover, that end in vr (as Zsvo^vr) and pr (as 
ddfiapr) must drop the r in the nominative and vocative 
singular, the laws of euphony not allowing any word to end 
in t. Thus, stem Zevoxptivr, nom. sing. Zevorptiv : stem 
3d ( uapT, nom sing, ddjiap. 



84 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 



Singular. 
N. 6 Tratdv, 
G. tov Kaiav-og 7 
D. tQ> natdv-Lj 
A. tov Tratuv-a 7 

Y. TtCLLOV. 



Singular, 
N. 6 ai6v, 
G. tov ai&v-oQj 

A. rbv at£)v-a f 
Y. al6v. 



6 iraidvj " the vjar-song" 

Dual. Plural 
N. T(J %aiav-£, N. oi 

G. rofV Traiav-otVj G. tcjv 

D. Tolv TTCltaV-OlV, D TOl£ 

A. r£> Tratdv-s, A. roi»f 



7raiav-ov 7 
7raiu-GL(v% 
Tratav-ag, 

7T(LULV-eg, 



6 ai&v, 66 the age" 

Dual 
N. t&> ai&v-e, 
G. tolv aidv-oLv, 
P. ro/> aiwv-oiv, 
A. rw al(bv-£, 
Y. alwi^-e. 



Plural 
N. oi at&v-ec, 
G. rw? aiuv-G)v f 
D. Tote ai£)-oi(v) 9 
A. roi>f aiC)v-ac 7 
Y. alwv-ej". 



Singular. 

G. TOV &£VO(bC)VT-OC 7 

J). r(b £,evo(p£)vT-i, 
A. rov %evo(f}6)VT-a 9 

Y ££VO<p£>V. 



6 Zevocbtiv, 66 Xenophon." 

Dual. 
N. rw Eevo^uvt-e, 
G. tocv tZevofycdvT'Oiv, 
J}. Tolv EEVO(f>G)VT-OlV, 
A. T&> &£VO(j>C)VT-£, 

Y . &£vop£)vT-s. 



Plural 
N. of Eevo(puvT-ec f 

G. TG>y jZeVofyldVT'ldVy 

D. roif &evo(p£)-GL{v) f 
A. roiff £,£vo<j)£)VT-a(;t 
Y. &evo$6)VT-£g, 



6 -drip, H the wild least," 



Singular. 
N. o #57/0, 
G. TOV #770- 0f f 
D. ra> &np-i, 
A. ro> -&?/p-a 7 
Y. $r/p. 



N. ra> 
G. ro?v 

D. TOIV 
A. TO) 

V. 



Dual. 

fir/p-e, 

-&np-olv 7 

-&np-otv 7 

&f}p-e 7 

&7}p-e. 



N. ol 
G. . Tuv 

D. T0Z$ 

A. Tovg 
Y. 



Plural 
&fjp-£q, 

$7)p-C)V 7 

•&rjp-GL(v) 7 
&f,p-ag 7 

-&fjp-EQ. 



K 

G. TOV 

I). Tip 

A. TO 

V. 



to vefcrap, <£ /Ae nectar 

Singular. Dual 

to viKrap, N. rcj vefcrap-s, N. ra 

VEfirdp-og f G. ro^ VEKTup-oiv, G. tuv 

V£KTdp-L 7 D. TOO* VEKTUp-OlV, D. ro?f 

VEKTap, A. TO) V£HTdp-£, A. TO, 

VEKTCLp. Y. VEK.TU.p-E. Y. 

Remark 1. The neuters belonging to this class all terminate 
in p, namely, in ap, op, op, or vp ; as, to vs/crap, rjrop, TreAwp, 
nvp. As regards the lengthening of the v in ttvo, the genitive 
having the short penult, nvpoc, compare Remark, page 68. 

Remark 2. The following four words in cov, genitive uvoc, 
namely, 'AttoXXov, UoGEidtiv, kvkeC>v 7 "a, mixture," and akov 7 
" a threshing -floor,' 1 throw away v in the accusative, and then 
undergo contraction ; as, 



Plural 
v£KTdp-a 7 

V£KTUp-G)V f 
VEKTOp'Gl, 

VEKTdp-a, 
V£KTdp-a. 



PAHADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



85 



'AnoAAtova ('Attoaaghi) 'Attoaag). 

Uoaeid&va (Hooecdua) HogeiScd. 

KVKetiva (KVKeua) kvkeC). 

akuva (uAo>a) uau. 

It must be observed, however, that, though the Attics greatly 
prefer these contracted forms in w, yet they do not exclusively 
employ them, but use also, sometimes, those in ova, The form 
Kvneti, however, is more poetical than nvneibva. — Buttmann 
thinks, that in Attic prose, at least, the shorter forms 'Kitoaaw 
and Uoaecdco were never employed except with the article prefix- 
ed, and that the fuller forms were generally used without the 
article. This remark seems confirmed, in some measure, by 
certain passages of Plato, where both forms of these two 
proper names occur with this distinction existing between 
them. (CratyL, p. 402, D and E ; p. 404, D ; p. 405, D.) 

Remark 3. The following neuters in eap contract ea into 77, 
namely, eap, 77/?, " the spring;" gen. eapog, fjpog : dat. cape, r/pt, 
&C. — areap, arrjp, "tallow;" gen. arearog, orrjrog ; dat. oreaTi, 
ffTr/TL, &c. — (j>peap, "a well;" gen. (ppearog, (ppnrog : dat. QpiaTi, 
<j>pnrLj &c— deXeap, "bait;" gen. SeAearog, deAnrog. 



(B.)— WORDS WHICH HAVE A VOWEL BEFORE THE ENDING 
og IN THE GENITIVE SINGULAR. 

Words which have a vowel before the ending og in the 
genitive singular are divided into three classes, namely : 
First Class, those whose nominative ends in avg, evg, 
or ovg. 

Second Class, those whose nominative ends in Tjg, eg, 
ag (gen. aog) ; og (gen. eog); og and a) (gen. oog). 

Third Class, those whose nominative ends in eg, vg, 1, 
and v. 

I. Substantives in avg, evg, or ovg. 
L The stem of substantives in avg, evg, or ovg ends in v 
(which was originally the digamma F), and the g is the 
gender-sign* 

IL This v (i. e., F) remains at the end of the word, and be- 
fore consonants, in the nominative, accusative, and vocative 

H 



86 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



singular, and in the dative plural ; but falls away from be- 
tween two vowels. 

III. Nouns in evg, however, have a long in the accusative 
singular, since in these the v is not, as in those in avg and 
ovg, regarded as a vowel, but as a consonant (F), and hence 
this v, or F, is rejected when coming between e and a ; as, 
(laGLAefa, (3amXed. 

IV. Nouns in svg have not only a long in the accusative 
singular, but also dc long in the accusative plural. In the 
genitive singular, moreover, they take the Attic form ecjg 
instead of eog, and suffer contraction in the dative singular 
and nominative plural, but usually omit it in the accusative 
plural. 

V. When the ending svg is preceded by a vowel, as, 
for example, in xoEvg^ F,v6oevg, the long endings a, ac, and 
cog absorb the e of the stem, and receive the circumflex ; 
as, %oza — %oa : %ozag = %oag : %ofag = %og5c. 

VI. Nouns in avg and ovg are contracted only in the 
accusative plural. 



Singular. 
N. 6 paaLAevc^ 
G. rod fiaoiTie-G)?, 
T<p PaGLAec, 

TOV f3d(Tl?iF-dj 

PaaLAev. 



D 
A. 
V. 



6 /3a<uXevg, " the king" 

Dual. 
N. tl) ftacuTie-e^ 
G. tolv paoLAe-oLv 
D. tolv (3acriM-oiv. 
A. rtj PglolAe-e, 
V. (3a(7iA£-e. 



Plural. 
N. oi PaoLAeZc-, 
G. rfiv j3a(UAe-G)v, 
D. role /3aGiAevGi(v), 
A. rovg paaCki-aq & -elg. 
V. ($aoiAei£. 



Singular. 
6 x oe k, 
tov ^oewf, x°^Cy 
D. Tci) x oe ^ 
A. tov x 0£a i X°U"> 
Xoev. 



N. 
G. 



V. 



6 %0Evg, " the measure P 
Dual. 

N. TO) x°£ £ i 

G. tolv x°z° LV i 

D. tolv x°z° lv -> 

A. to) x°£ £ i 

V. X 0£e - 



Plural. 
N. oi x oe ^t 
G. t&v x 0£U)V i X°^ v i 

D. TOLQ X oe ^ aL ( V )y 

A. Tovg x 0£a Cy X°<*Ct 
V. x 0£ tC' 



Singular. 
N. 6 Povg, 

G. TOV /?0-6f, 

D. to) /3o-t, 
A. tov fiovv, 
V. pov. 



6 (3ovg, " //ie o#." 

Dual. 
N. rw /3o-e, _ 
G. roZV Po'Olv, 
D. TOdV f3o-otv, 
A. to) (36- e, 
V. p6-e. 



Plural. 
N. o£ po-eg, 
G. tuv po-tiv, 
D. Tolq povoL(v), 
A. Tovg {po-ag) povc- y 
V. po-eg. 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 87 



rj ypavg, " the old woman" 



Singular. 
N. ij ypavg, 
G. rfjg ypd-6g, 
D. Trj ypd-t, 
A. T?]v ypavv, 
ypav. 



V. 



Dual. 
N. ra ypd-e, 
G. ralv ypd-olv, 
D. ralv ypa-oLv, 
A. ra ypa-e, 
V. ypd-e. 



Plural 
N. at ypd-eg, 
G. rdv ypd-£)v< 
D. ralg ypaVGi.(v), 
A. raf (ypa-af ) yjoaiJf, 
V. ypd-eg. 



Remark 1. In order to obtain a deeper insight into the declen- 
sion of nouns of this class, we may compare with it the Sanscrit 
declension of the substantive ndus, " a ship," which is of the 
feminine gender, like the Greek vavg. Thus, genitive, ndv-as ; 
locative, nav-i ; accusative, nav-am, &c. ; and, again, gdus, 
"an ox or cow" (pronounced gbs, and only another form for 
bos, as the Greek ptBrifit for the Sanscrit gagdmi) ; genitive, 
gav-as ; locative, gdv-i, as in Latin bovi, &c. — (Bopp, Vergleich. 
Gramm., § 123, 124.) 

Remark 2. The genitive singular of nouns in evg ends some- 
times, among the Attic poets, in eog instead of eug ; as, QrjGevg, 
gen. BrjGeog : dpiGrevg, gen. apioreoq. — The accusative singular, 
not only among the Attic, but also among all the poets, some- 
times terminates in fj instead of ed ; as, iepfj, %vyypa<prj, Mvkmjtt} 
(II., xv., 339). — The nominative and vocative plural, among the 
Attics, ended not only in sic, but also in fjg ; as, IHaraiije for 
Illaraielg. Nay, we even find in Plato (Thecet., p. 109, B.) the 
Ionic form eec ; as, oi 'Hpa/cheec re Kal QnGeeg. — The long a in 
the accusative-ending of the singular and plural is sometimes, 
though not often, shortened by the Attic poets on account of 
the necessity of the verse. In the common dialect this short- 
ening is customary. 

Remark 3. Like x oe ^ c ^ are declined Heipaievg, gen. Ueipaieog 
and Yieipaiug : accus. Ueipaia — 6 dyvtevg, " an altar before the 
house-door, 11 gen. dyvitig: accus. ayvia : plur. accus. dyvidg. — 
And also several proper names ; as, 'Eperptevg, gen. 'Eperpitig : 
'EreipLEvg, gen. ^reipiug ; and thus we find the forms MnXid, 
EvBofig, "EvBoa, EvBoag, Uharatdg, Awpidg. — The exceptions are 
dlievg, "a fisherman;" gen. dlLeiog, accus. dliea, accus. plur. 
akteag, and some proper names. 

Remark 4. The nominative plural of (Sovg and ypavg generally 
remains open with the Attics ; as, [36eg, ypdeg. In the accusative, 
on the contrary, we find flovg, ypavg, vavg : very seldom /36ag, 
and in the Anthology, on one occasion, /36a, the v being regard- 
ed as a consonant ((Sofa, bov-em), as in (SaatTievg. 



88 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



Remark 5. Like fSovg are declined 6 x°^d " & congius" or 
measure, and 7/ povc, "the sumach-tree both, however, without 
contraction in the plural ; as, x° e S> X° uv i X 0V<J h X<**W- This 
noun x°vs must not be confounded with £0£t5f, as given above 
in the paradigms. (Kiihner, § 283, Anm. 5. — Compare Butt- 
mann, Ausf. Spr., $ 58, sub Jin.) 

Like ypavg is declined only r\ vavc, " sMp («\ e., va/f. 
Compare Latin nav-is), having in the accusative singular 
vavv, dat. plur. vav<jl(v), accus. vai;c\ Otherwise it is 
irregular. The declension of it in Attic, Epic, Ionic, and 
Doric is as follows : 



rj vavg, " the ship" 



Attic. 


.E/n'c and Ionic. 


Doric. 


Sing. N. vavc, 


Sing. N. v^vf and 


5m^. N. vav{ & vac-, 


G. vecjf , 


G. v^6f and vedc, 


G. vaof, 


D. yjyi, 




D. vat, 


A. vavv, 


A. vrja and vea, 


A. vatJv & vav f 


V. pavf. 


V. vrjvg. 




Paa/. N. vfje, 


Dual. N. v^e, 


DwaZ. N. vue, 


G. veolv, 


G. veolv, 


G. vaotv, 


D. VEOLV, 


D. veolv, 


D. vaolv, 


A. wjte, 


A. wye, 


A. ydt, 


V. Wjfo 


V. wye. 


V. vae. 


Plur. N. i^cf, 


Pfor. N. i^gf & veer/, 


P/ur. N. i»d€f, 


G. vecDv, 


G. vt/wv & vetiv, 


G. i^cwv, 


D. vaval(v), 




D. vavcri, 


A. vawf, 


A. VTjOLC & V£(2C, 


A. vdaCy 


V. viyef. 




1 V. vaeg t 



Remark 1. We have given under the Attic head the nomina- 
tive, accusative, and vocative dual, to complete the paradigm, 
although they do not, in reality, occur. 

Remark 2. The Doric genitive vaoc, and the Ionic genitive 
V7]bc, are also employed by the Attic tragic writers. The ac- 
cusative form vfjac occurs in Euripides (Iph. AuL, 254) in a 
choral song. The nominative plural form vavg is only met 
with in later writers. 



II. Words in v { q, eg, ag (gen. aoc) ; oc (gen. eoc) ; (og (gen, 
woe) and ojc, and g) (gen. ooc) 
I. The stem of w r ords of this class ends in c\ and with 
regard to the retaining or dropping of this c, the same rule 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



89 



applies as in the case of v with the substantives of the pre- 
ceding class. That is, the c remains at the end of a word, 
and before a consonant, but is omitted between two vowels. 

II. In the dative plural a o is omitted ; as, 6 $cog, " the 
jackal" dat. plur. rotg -&c*)ol(v), instead of #b)o-oi(y). — The 
Epic writers, however, sometimes retain the o on account 
of the exigencies of the verse ; as, deirao-ot, from to de~ag. 

1. Words in 77c and eg. 

I. The endings rjg (masculine and feminine) and eg (neu- 
ter) belong only to adjectives, and to proper names in the 
form of adjectives, ending in vrjg, Xrjg, yevijg, Kparrjg, f^f)6rjg, 
ireidrig^ odevrjg, and fiXerjg, contracted tcXrjg. 

II. The neuter exhibits the bare stem. In the mascu- 
line and feminine, on the other hand, the short end-vowel 
of the stem, namely e, changes to 77. 

III. In the dative plural a o is dropped ; as, oacbe-ot(v), 
for oacpeo-ot(y). 

IV. Words of this class are contracted through all the 
cases, after omitting o, with the exception of the nomina- 
tive and vocative singular, and the dative plural ; and those 
in fcXerjg are contracted even in the nominative singular, 
namely, into KXr\g, and undergo a double contraction in the 
dative singular. 

6, fj, oacprjg, to oacpeg, " evident." 1 



Masc. 

N. oacbrjg, 
oacpe-og, 
oacpovg, 



G. 
D. 



oacpe-t, ) 



oacpet 
oacpe- 
oacprj 
V. oacpeg, 



A. 



e-a, > 



Singular. 
Fern. 

oacbrjg, 
oacpe-og, ) 
oacpovg, ) 
oacpe-t, j 
oacpet, { 
oacpe-a, ) 
oacpr), S 
oacpeg, 



Neut. 

oacpeg, 
oacpe-og, ) 
oacpovg, 3 
oacpe-t, ^ 
oacpet, ^ 

oacpeg, 

oacpeg. 



1. We have given cacpyg here with Kiihner, though properly be- 
H 2 



90 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



N. 



Jfasc. 

aacps e, ) 

ca<fie~OLv, ) 
oacpolv, $ 
oa<pe-oiv, ) 

OCKpOLV, ) 

oacps-s, ) 
oa(p?j, ) 

Od(p£-£, ) 

oaiprj, § 



Masc. 

oa<pe-ec, ) 
oaipEig, ) 
q oa<pe-<i)v, ) 
oa&tiv, ) 
oa(p£-oi(v), 



oacpE-ag, ) 
oaipEtg, ) 
aacpe eg, J 



tin. 

e-e, ? 



Dual. 
Fern. 

oa(p£-< 
oatprj 

oacps-oiv, ) 
oacpolv, $ 
oacfys OLV, 
oa<poLV, 
oa(pe-E, ) 
ccMprj, ) 
oa(pe-e, / 

OCKpfj, \ 

Plural. 
Fern. 

oa(ps-Eg, { 
oacbelg, \ 
oa<f)e-(x)v, 
oacptiv, 
oa(f)£-oi(y), 
oa(j)£-ag, ) 
cacpeiq, ) 
oacpe-eg, ^ 

the trireme" 



JVeut. 

oacpe-e, ) 
oaipTj, S 
oacpE-oiv, ) 

cacpe-oiv 
oacpolv 
oacbe-e, } 
ca$rj, $ 
oacpE-s, ) 



Singular. 



G 



D 



A. 



rpii]povg 

Tpl7]p£-l ) 
TplfjpSL, ) 
TpLTJpE 0,, ) 

rpLTjprj, I 



V. rplrjpEg. 



Dual. 
N rpifjpE-E, ) 
' rpirjpTj, S 

q Tpi7}p£-OLV, } 

' rpirjpolv, $ 
■p rptrjpE olv, ) 
' rpirjpolv, $ 
^ rptrjpE e 
Tpirjpr], 
rpir)p£-£, } 
h S 



TpiripT]. 



N. 



G. 



Jfeut. 

aacpE-a, ) 
aa<pr), $ 

OCL(f)E-G)V, ) 

aacpojv, ) 
ca(j)E-ci(v), 
oacpE-a, > 
oacprj, \ 
aa<pEa, ) 
oacpr). \ 



Plural, 
rpirjpE-Eg 
Tptrjpeig, 

Tpl7]pE-G)V 

rptrjptiv, 



D. rpirjpE-cifv), 



A. 



TpirjpE-ac, ) 
rpirjpEig, $ 

TpirjpE Eg, > 
Tpirjpsig. > 



longing to adjectives, as above stated, 
form of declension if the c be retained : 



The following shows the 



Singular. 

N. 

G. aacpeo-og, 
D. ca(j)E<J-ii 
A, aa<bi<s-a. 



Dual. 

N. Ga(f>6(J-€, 

G. aaipea-oiVy 

A. Oa<f>EG-£i 

V. cad)EO-£. 



Plural. 

N. GacpEG-eg, Neut. catyza-a, 
G. aacpEd-uv, 

D. Ga§EO-CL, 

A. ca§£o-ag, ca(j>EG-a, 
V. catyEG-eg, Ga^ia-a. 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



91 



6 UepiKXeTjg, UepifcXrjg, " Pericles" 

Singular. 

N. UspLfcXirjg, contracted UepifcXrjg, 

G. HepitcXee-og, " HepiaXeovg, 

D. UepttcXse-'i, " UepifcXeet, UepttcXel, 

A. UeptfcXee a, " liepinXed, 

V. 1J epcuXeeg, " ILeplfcXeig, 

Remark 1. Observe the contraction in the dual, namely, rpj- 
^pee into rptjjpn, since is here contracted into r/, not, as else- 
where, into el. 

Remark 2. In adjectives ending in ^r, ^, if a vowel precedes 
this termination, ea is usually contracted, not into y (like aa§ia 
= ca(p7j), but into a (like Uepifchee-a — He^/c/lftt) : as, aK?i£7/g, 
44 unrenowned" accus. sing. masc. and fern. ; and nom. accus. 
and voc. plur. n e ut., luCkeia — attixu, : vyifc, " healthy " vyika — 
vyia. 

Remark 3. Proper names with the endings in § 1, and also 
"Apng, " Mars," follow both the third and first declensions in 
the accusative singular ; and, since they have tw r o modes of in- 
flection, are therefore called Hcteroclites ; as, Scj/cparea^Sw/c- 
pdrn and XcjKpdrrjv, the latter form being according to the first 
declension in rjg. But in those ending in K%ns, the accusative in 
kTSjv is not used by good Attic writers. The vocative d "Hpa/c- 
Tieg, as a species of exclamation, belongs to the later prose. 



2. Words in o)g (gen. woe), and in cjg and g) (gen. oog). 

I. The stem of substantives in wc, gen. coog, appears 
purely in the nominative, since neither the end-vowel un- 
dergoes any change, nor can the gender- sign g attach it- 
self to the stem. 

II. In the dative plural a a is dropped ; as, &G)'Oi(v) for 

$G)(JOl(v). 

6 #g3c, " the jackal" 1 
Dual. 

N. TO) 

G. roiv -&g)-olv, 

D. TOLV -&6-OLV, 



Singular. 
N. 6 #«c, 
G. tov Su-og, 
D. tcj -Q-o-L, 
A. tov -&£)-a, 
V. due 



A. 
V. 



doc. 



Plural. 
N. ol &ti-ec, 

G. Tu)V -&LJ-OV, 

D. Tolq &G)-(Jt(v) y 
A. tovc. ftti-ag, 

V. -&CJ-EC. 



1. The following shows the mode of declining if the a be retained : 
Sing. G. duo-dc, D. &ucr4, A. -tfw-a, &C. 



92 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



6 rjpG)£, " the hero" 1 



Singular. 

N. 6 vp^g, 

G. tov qpcj-oc, 

D. TU) 7JpG)-i, 

A. rbv r/po-a and 

Y. r/pcog. 

III. The endings 



Dual. 

N. rw tjpo-e, 

G. TOO* TjpCD-OLV, 

D. roh> i]p6)-OLv, 

A. TO) 7]pLd-E, 

Y. rjpu-e. 



Plural. 
N. ripo-eg, 
G. rwv yptj-ov, 
D. ro?f f/pu-GL(v) 7 
A, Toi>f ^pw-acand ^pwf, 
Y. rjpo-eg. 



ojg and 6), gen. ooc, belong only to 
feminine nouns. The stem ends in oc, but as the a is re- 
jected in inflection, the end- vowel, as a compensation for 
this, is lengthened. (Compare page 66.) 

IV. The c in the ending wc, however, has kept its place 
in the Attic and common language in one solitary instance, 
namely, in the noun aldcjg (stem aldog). In all the other 
nouns the c is dropped, as above remarked, and the nomi- 
native ends in o) ; as, ^%g> (stem ^%oc). 

V. The vocative singular ends in ot, with regard to 
which consult § 3, page 72. — The dual and plural are like 
the second declension. 



i] t)x&, " rf ie echo" 2 



N. v 
G. rrjg 
D. r?? 

A. T7]V 

Y. 



Singular. 
VX°~ a > 



nxQvq, 
VX ol i 

fool. 



Dual. 



N. ra 

G. ralv 

J), ralv 

A. ra 
Y. 



VX'otv, 
VX-olv, 

vx-6, 

VX-6- 



Plural. 



N. al 

G. TUV 

D. ralg 
A. rag 
V. 



VX-ot, 

VX-ok, 
VX-°V£> 



i] aldug, " the shame: 



Singular. 
N. 7] aldug, 
G. rrjg aldo-og y aidovg, 
D. ry aido-'i, aldol, 
A. rrjv aido-a, aldtij 
V. ai66-i f aidol. 



N. ra 
G. toXv 
D. ran; 
A. ra 
Y. 



Dual, 
ald-i 



aid-otv, 
aid-oivy 
ald-6, 
ald-co. 



Plural. 
N. at alS- 
G. rdh> 

A. raf 
Y. 



ald-olg, 
ald-ovg, 
aid-oi. 



1. The following shows the mode of declining if the a be retained : 

Sing. G. r/poc-og, 

D. TjpLdG-L, 

A. Tjpu>a-a, &c. 

2. If the c were retained, the form of declining would be (stem 
rjxog), G. rjxoo-og, D. tixog-l, A. ijxoG-a y Y. rjxoo-i, &c. 

3. Retaining the (7, we would have (stem aMoc), G. atdocr-of, D. 
di&oc-iy A. aldaa-a, Y. aidoa-i, &c. 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 93 



Remark. The Ionic dialect has, besides ai66g, two other sub- 
stantives, also, with the same ending, namely, 77 i]C)g, "the dawn," 
and 6 xp^g, " the skin" gen. XP°'°S > dat. XP°h accus. xp° a - 1° 
the Attic dialect, 6 xp^c takes the following inflection : XP 0)T °C> 
Xpuri, xP^ Ta " The dative XPV (f° r XP WTL ) ^ s employed with ev 
in certain forms of expression ; as, %vpei ev xp&-> " # touches one 
nearly ;" ev xp<*> f*a>x£Gdac, " to fight hand to hand." For qug the 
Attics said sue, which was declined according to the Attic sec- 
ond declension. 

3. Words in ag {gen. aog), and in og (gen. eog). 

I. Words in ag, genitive aog, are neuter, and exhibit in 
the nominative the pure stem. In the dative plural a a is 
dropped. 

II. A contraction occurs only in the dative singular, and 
in the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural. The 
contracted dual in a can not be confirmed by any example. 

III. Only two substantives belong to this class, namely, 
to ceXag, " splendor" and to denag, " the cup." 

to oeXag, u splendor" 1 



Singular. 
N. to G£?iag, 
G. rov oeXa-oe, 
D. tgj geTicl-l, geT^ol, 
A. to Gihag, 
V. GiXag. 



Dual. 
N. tg) vela- e y 
G. toIv geTiol-olv, 
D. tolv aeXd-OLv, 
A. to) azka-e. 
V. geKcl- e. 



Plural. 
N. to, G£ka-a, geKcl, 
G. Tibv geKcl-uv, 
D. tolq Ge"ka-Gi{v), 
A. ra Geka-a, geKcl, 
V. Gzka-a, Gzka. 



Remark. Three neuters in ag, namely, (3peTac, " a statue ;" 
tt&ag, " a fleece ;" and oiidag, "ground" take in the genitive and 
dative singular, and also in the plural, after the Ionic fashion, 
the weaker e in place of a. This is likewise the case, in part, 
with the neuter nvEtyag, " darkness." Thus, 

(3p£Tag (poetic), gen. /3p£T£og. — Plur. nom. ftpETea, contr. f3peT7} y 

gen. ppsTEov, &c. 
Kuag (poetic). Plur. in Homer, nusa, kuegl(v). 
ovdag (poetic), gen. ovdsog, dat. ovdsi and ovdst. 
Kv£(f>ac. ( poetry and prose), gen. KV£<j)£og, preferred to avfyaoc (in 
Aristophanes we have nv£<povg), dat. Kvicpai, Kvi(pa preferable 
form. 

1. Retaining the g, G. G£kaG-og, D. geTiclg-l. — Dual. N. geXclg-e, G. 
ge\(lg-oiv, &c. — Plur. N. GshaG-a, G. geMg-cov, D. G&ao-ai, A. 06* 
"kaG-a, V. GEkaG-iX. 



94 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



IV. The ending og, genitive eog, belongs, in like manner, 
exclusively to. neuters. In the nominative, however, the 
stem-vowel e has changed into the fuller o. Thus, stem 
yeveg : nom. yevog : gen. (yeveo-og) yeveog. — Stem KAeeg : 
nom. nXeog : gen. (tcAeeo-og) fcXeeog. 

V. In the dative plural a a is dropped ; as, yeve-oi for 
yzvea.OL, {y). 

VI. A contraction takes place in the genitive and dative 
singular, and in all the dual and plural cases, excepting the 
dative plural. 

Remark. In the dual, ee are contracted into rj, not, as we 
would expect, into el. {Compare Remark 1, page 91.) In the 
plural, fa, preceded by a vowel, is contracted into <2, not into 
7j. {Corn-pare HepLK?ied, page 91.) 



Singular. 
N. yivog, 

G. yevs-or, yivovq, 
D. yevE-i, ysvEt, 
A. yevoq, 
V. yivog. 



Singular. 

N. K?LEOq, 

G. kXee-oc, tt?L£QVg, 

D. K?i£e-i, kTieel, 

A. /c/\eof, 

V. Kkeoq. 



to yevog, " the race.™ 
Dual. 

yEVT], 

yEVolv. 



N. y evS'E, 
G. ysvE-otv, 
D. ysvs-oiv, 
A. ysvE-E, 
V. yivs-E, 



yEVOLV, 

yivrj, 
yivn, 



Plural. 
N. yivE-a, yevrj, 
G. y£vi-(ov, yEvtiv, 
D. yEV£-ot,{v), 
A. yive-a, yivrj, 
V. yeve-a, yivn. 



to tcXeog, " the fame . 



Dual. 
N. kTiee-e, kXetj, 

G. K?l££-OLV, tcTlEOLV, 

D. kXee-oiv, kXeoiv, 
A. kTiee-e, kXetj, 
V. kXee-e, kTletj. 



Plural. 
N. /c/Ue-a, /c/lea, 
G. /cAee-cjv, kXecjv, 
D. /C/1e£-<K(i>), 
A. K^EE-tt, kTieu, 

V. Klie-a, kXeu,. 



Remark. The open form of the genitive plural often appears ; 
as, bpecjv, PeTieov, KEpdiov, and more especially avOiuv, the con- 
tracted form of which last, namely, avdtiv, is rejected by the 
Atticists. We also find in the Attic writers the open form of 
the dual ee, namely, tcj yivEe. 



1. Retaining the g (stem yh£g), G. y£v£G-og, D. yivEG-i. — Dual. 
N. y£VEG-£, G. y£VEG-oiv, &c. — Plur. N. yivsa-a, G. ysvEG-ov, D. ye- 
veg-gl, A. yevecr-a, V. yevec-a. 

2. The stem is /c^fcf, and the oblique cases, retaining the cr, would 
be, G. K?iEEG-og, D. kTieeg-l, &c. 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



95 



III. Words in tg, vg, i, and v. 

1. Words in Ig and vg. 



I. Substantives in Ig and vg originally ended in Ifg and 
vfg ; that is, the gender-sign g was preceded by the di- 
gamma, which, in its turn, had a short vowel before it ; as, 
Atf-g (stem All), genitive AlS-og, dative All 4, &c. The 
truth of this is confirmed by ancient inscriptions, wherein 
the dative form AIJ4 actually occurs. 

II. The digamma, however, became gradually blended 
with the short vowel that preceded it, and, while it disap- 
peared from writing, changed this short vowel into a long 
one. Thus, Atfg became changed into Alg : IxQvJg into 
l%0vg, &c. 

III. The digamma thus disappeared from the word, as 
far as the eye was concerned, but still would appear to have 
been heard in pronunciation at the end of the word when a 
consonant came after. Hence, besides the nominative, we 
have the end-syllable long in the accusative and vocative 
singular also. 

IV. But when the digamma occurred between two vow- 
els it was dropped in pronunciation, and the first of the two 
vowels was shortened ; as, Al-6g, IxOv-og. 

V. In the dative plural we have IxOvol instead of 1%Qvgi, 
and aval instead of overt, contrary to the analogy of ypavac, 
(3oven, (3aotXevGL. 



Singular. 
N. 6 /af, 

G. TOV Kt-6g, 



D. TCJ KC-t, 
A. TOV KLV, 
V. Kl 



6 frig, " the corn-worm. 
Dual. 
N. to) nt-e, 
G. toiv kl-olv, 

D. TOlv KL-OLV, 



N. ol at- eg, 

G. T&V KL-UV, 



D. Tolg Ki-cri(v), 



Plural. 



A. to> Ki-e, 
V. kU. 



A. Tovg id-ag, 
V. at- eg. 



N. 6 cvg, 

G. tov Gv-6g, 

J). TCJ GV-C, 

A. TOV GVV, 

V. GV. 



Singular. 



6 ovg, " the boar." 

Dual. 
N. to) gv-e, 

G. TOIV GV-OlV, 
D. TOLV GV-olv, 



N. ol Gv-eg, 
G. tCjv gv-uv, 



D. rolg gv-gi(v), 



Plural. 




A. rovg Gv-ag, 
| V. cv-eg. 



98 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



N. 6 



Singular. 



G. TOV IxOV'OZ, 



D. 



A. rbv 1x6 vv, 
V. l x do. 



6 l%$v<;, " the fish. 

Dual. 
N. tg> IxOv-Ej 
G. roiv IxOv-oLv, 
D. toIv IxOv-oiv, 
A. ro> txdv-e, 
V. IxOv-e. 



Plural. 
N, oi lxOv-€£, V£. 
G. rcDf IxOv-ov, 
D. rotf ix6v-(7i(v), 
A. rovg lxdv-ag, Ix^vCy 
V. ixdv-eg, ixQvg. 



Remark 1. The accusative of Atg is Aca, in place of Alv : so, 
in Theocritus and the later writers, we have ixOva for ixdvv. 
• Remark 2. There are some words in which the a belongs to 
the stem, it is true, but which, since, on the one hand, they drop 
cr between two vowels, and, on the other, follow the analogy of 
the above paradigms in the accusative and vocative singular, 
agree in their declension with that of the nouns just given. 
The noun fivg is an instance of this. Thus, 



[ivg, 



Singular. 
N. fivgy 
G. ftv oc;, 

D. flV-L, 

A. [ivv, 
V. fiv. 



• a mouse. 

Dual. 
N. [iv- e, 

G. fJLV-OLV, 
D. f/,V-OCV, 

A. fiv-e, 

V. fZV-€. 



Plural. 
N. fiv-ec, 
G. fiv-uv, 

D. jLLV-GL, 

A. fj,v-acy 
V. uv r eg. 



2. Words in £c, I, vg, and v. 

I. The stem of these substantives ends in t or as the 
form of the neuter, which exhibits the pure stem, plainly 
shows. The final g in the feminines and masculines is 
merely the gender- sign. 

II. The stem-vowels i and v remain only in the accusa- 
tive and vocative singular ; in the other cases they pass 
over into e. 

III. Substantives of this class are distinguished from 
those in Ig and vg by the short end- syllable in the nomina- 
tive, accusative, and vocative singular, which those in Ig 
and vg have long. 

IV. In the genitive singular and plural substantives of 
the masculine or feminine gender take G)g and o)v as case- 
endings, according to the Ionic-Attic form, the w in which 
produces no change upon the position of the accent. 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



97 



V. The dual form ecdv does not occur. — There is a con- 
traction in the dative singular, and in the nominative and 
accusative plural. 

rj 7r6Arc, " the city.'''* 

Dual. Plural. 
N. woXe-e, N. ttoTie-ec;, iro?iecg, 

G. 7T0Xe-0LV G.. 7TO?iE-0)V, 

D. 7TO?»E-OlV, 

A. tzoXe-e, 
V. TzoTie-e. 



Singular. 

N. n67Xq, 

G. TTtf/le- <jf, 

D. 7r6?l£-i, 7r6?^£C, 
A. 7TO/lu>, 

V. note. 



D. 7r6Ae-(Ti(v), 

A. 7ro/le-af, iroAetg, 



Singular. 

N. TT^f, 
G. TT^e-CJf, 

A. TTtfXVV, 



6 nrjxvs, " the cubit." 
Dual. 

G. 7rr/x£-oiv, 
D. nnx^-otv, 

A. 7T^£-e, 



Plural. 

G. 7r^e-wv, 
D. 7r^e-^(v), 

A. TTT^e-af, 7T^£if, 



Singular. 
N. aivdntj 
G. OLvane-oq, 
D. GivaizE-i, GcvuKEt, 

A. GLVCLTTt, 

V. aivum. 



to olvdm, " Z/ie mustard." 

Dual. 
N. <m>a7re-£, 

G. GLVaiZE-OLV, 

D. otvcmi-Qiv, 
A. glvuite-e, 



Plural. 
N. <rtra7T£-a, GLvann, 

G. GLVaiZE-OV, 

D. g iv air e-gl(v), 
A. Givd-rre-a, (rivalry, 
V. <7wa7re-a, Givanrj. 



Singular. 
N. ckrv, 
G. ugte-o^, 
D. ugte-l, ugtel, 
A. aorv, 
V. d<rrv. 



to aarv, " /^e c%." 

Dual. 
clgte-e, 

ugte-olv, . 

CLGTE-E, 
UGTE E. 



Plural. 

N. UGTE- a, (LGT1J, 
G. UGTE-UV, 
D. d<7T£-(7£(v), 
A. UGTE-a, UGT1J, 
V. &GTE-a, UGT7}. 

Remark 1. Adjectives in vf, e?a, v, follow in declension, in the 
masculine, iriixv£> ana * m tne neuter a<rn/, except that the geni- 
tive singular has not the Ionic- Attic ending in uf, but the com- 
mon one in og ; as, rjdvg, tj6eo^. 

Remark 2. Among the Attic poets (in the tragic and comic 
senarius), substantives in tq sometimes form the genitive in eog ; 
as, 7r6/leof, vBpEoc, ofcog. The form irolLe&c is often used by the 
same poets as forming two syllables by synizesis ( — ). 

Remark 3. Instead of the dual form in ee, we find, also, two 
others, one in el and the other in rj. Thus, we have in Isocra- 
tes (Paneg., c. ii.) to) noln ; and in Plato (Rep., iii., p. 410, E.) 

TO) (bVGEL and TO) <j>VG7J. 

i 



98 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



Remark 4. The accusative plural of nouns in vc occurs some- 
times, among the Attic poets, in the open form ; as, TT^x ea C in 
Aristophanes. The genitive forms nrjxovg and nrtxtiv were 
employed by later writers^ 

Remark 5. In the neuters in i and v, the Ionic- Attic genitive- 
form in the singular is very seldom found ; as, for example, 
acreug in Euripides. (Phazn., 856.) In the plural it never oc- 
curs. 

VI. In the Ionic and Doric dialects the inflection of these 
substantives in eg differs from that just given, but still is 
regular in itself ; as, noXig, G. noALog, D. ttoXu, ttoXl, &c. 
So, also, in the Attic dialect and common language, in the 
case of adjectives in tg, i, whose stem does not end in a 
consonant ; as, ISpig, tdpi, G. tdptog, &c, and in certain 
nouns which are, in part, poetic ; as, rj iropng, G. rropriog, 
"the heifer;" 6 ydarpig, G. ydarptog, "the glutton;" 6 
yXdvig, G. yXdviog, "a kind of fish ;" 6, i), olg, G. olog, 
" the sheep" — The inflection of eyxeXvg , " the eel" is also 
peculiar in the singular ; G. eyxeXv-og, &c, but in the 
plural eyxeXeig, &,c, and in the dual eyx^Xee, &c. 



Singular. 
N. nopTLCy 

G. TTOpTl-Og, 

D. ITOpTL-L, TCOpTl, 

A. TTOpTLV, 

V. TTOpTl. 



Singular. 
N. olg, 
G. olog, 

J). Oil, 

A. biv, 
V. olg. 



Singular. 
N. eyx&vc, 
G. hyxe"kv-og, 
D. kyxehv-'i, 
A. fyx&vv, 



i] iroprcg, " the heifer" 
Dual. 

N. 7TOpTC-€, 

G. IZOpTL-OlV, 

D. TTOpTL-OtV, 

A. TZOpTL-E, 

V. 7C0pTL-£. 



Plural. 
N. TTopri-e^y Troprlg, 

G. 7T0pTL-G)V, 

D. Tropri-G^v), 
A. iropn-ag, Tzoprlg, 
V. iropri-eg, Troprlg. 



6, rj, olg, " the sheep" 

Dual. 
N. ole, 



G. ololv, 
D. ololv, 
A. ole, 
V. ole. 



Plural. 

N. oleg, 
G. olebv, 
D. oIgl(v), 

A. olag, less often olg. 
V. oleg. 



i] eyxeXvg, " the eel." 

Dual. 

N. kyx&e-e, 
G. eyxe'ke-oLV, 
D. eyxeXe-oiv, 
A. kyx&e-e, 
V. eyxeXe-e. 



Plural. 

N. eyxeketq, 
G. eyx&e-ov, 
D. kyxehe-cn(v), 
A. eyx&eig, 
V. kyxeTieig. 



QUANTITY OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



09 



QUANTITY OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
I. Rule 1. The case-endings a, l, v, and ag are short ; as, 



ptva, 

ylyavrd, 

narepd, 



drjpi, 

TjpCJC, 

7x6X1, 
oCvanl, 



eyxeXv, 
aorv, 
yovv, 
ddtcpv, 
yXvKv, 



ftopaftag, 

bpvtddg, 
deXtilvdg, 
prjropdg, 
drjpdg. 



Exception 1. But a is long in the accusative-ending of the 
singular and plural of substantives in eve ; as, tov tepid, rove 
lepedc, from 6 lepevc, 11 the priest" 

Exception 2. The v is long in ov, lx6v, &c, as may be learn- 
ed from the paradigms. 

Rule 2. Words whose nominative ends in af, i% 9 v%\ 
axp, ixp, wj) ; ig and vg, have in the oblique cases either a 
long or short penult, according as the vowel in the ending 
of the nominative is long or short ; as, 



#Gjpa£, -dicog, 

plip, —Inog, 

aurlg, -Zvog, 

deXcplg, —Zvog, 



But pojXdi;, —ditog, 

eXrrlg, —Idog, 

KarrjXlip, -£</>oc, 

Kopvg, —vBog. 



In order, however, to ascertain whether the three doubt, 
ful vowels be long or short, the following remarks must V5e 
attended to : 

Remark 1. af is long, 1. In monosyllabic masculines of this 
ending ; as, /3Xu^ -dxoc ; and in the feminine noun fiat;, -dyoc ; 
but Spa!;, -&k6c, is short. — 2. In dissyllabic masculines whose 
penult is long by nature, and also in all trisyllabic and polysyl- 
labic words ; as, tfwpdf, -ukoc ; lipd^, -ukoc, &c., except av/.d^, 
— ukoc ; /Lielpdt;, -dKoc ; (j>v2,u^ —ukoc, and avdpd%, -ukoc. — 3. In 
words having a diminutive or lessening force, with a vowel 
preceding the termination ; as, vtd%, -ukoc, " a youngster 
<j>Xvdi-, -ukoc, "a droll;" and in the following dissyllabic mas- 
culines whose penult is long by position ; as, Qoprdt;, -ukoc ; 
GTOfi<f>d^ —ukoc ; izuaad^, -ukoc ; Kopdut;, —dKog ; iroprcd^, -ukoc ; 
cvpQd!;, -ukoc ; XdSpu^, -ukoc ; and, finally, in the word <pevd^, 

—dKOC. 

Exception. Some dissyllabic masculines, however, w ? hose 



100 



DIALECTS OP THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



penult is long by nature, have, nevertheless, the a short in the 
oblique cases ; as, Tielpiat;, -dKog, &c. 

' Remark 2. *£'is long, 1. In monosyllabic words; as, If, 'licog; 

-laog ; ipl§, -lnog ; excepting, however, most monosyllables 
that begin with two consonants ; as, #p£f, rplxog. — 2. In dis- 
syllables whose penult is long either by nature or position ; as, 
j3efx6i^ -licog ; rerrZf , -lyog ; oirddit;, -lung ; tyolvit;, -mog ; except 
XoIvl^ -licog, and those which have a X in the middle ; 3s, kv- 
7Cl%, -lnog. 

Remark 3. vi; is long only in those dissyllables whose penult 
is long by nature; as, /cijpvi;, -vnog ; ktjvZ, -vnog \ and in two 
whose penult is long by position ; as, j36{i6vij, -incog, and kqkkv!;, 
—vyog. 

Remark 4. aip is every where short ; as, "Apaip, -uSog. 

Remark 5. if is long in monosyllables ; as, "If, Kvlf, dplf, 
gen. -Znog, the names of certain insects, &c. ; except vcf, vT- 
(p6g, and Tctf, 7u66g. 

Remark 6. vf is long in monosyllables ; as, yvf, yvrrog : 
ypvf, ypvnog. 

Remark 7. tg is long, 1. In monosyllables and other words 
which make the genitive in ivog and idog ; as, f>lg, pivog : unrig, 
-Ivog ; opvig, -Idog. — 2. In many words whose genitive ends in^ 
Idog : as, dfig, j3aX6lg, ftarpaxlg, KijKig, KrjXig, nvrjfiig, atypaylg, &c. 

Remark 8. vg is long, 1. In monosyllables; as, fivg, ovg.—Z. 
In polysyllables whose genitive ends in vog. But, both in mon- 
osyllables and polysyllables, it must be observed that the v in 
the other cases is short, with the exception of the accusative in 
vv ; as, dpvg, dpvog, fipvv : fivg, (ivog, fivv : ix^vg, IxOvog, txdvv. — > 
3. In the two words Sayvg, -vfiog, and K&jivg, -vdog. 

Other particulars relative to quantity are given along with 
the paradigms themselves. 



DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

1. General Remarks. 

li In the Doric dialect, in this as in the other declensions, the long 
d takes the place of rj ; as, judv, fidvog, &c., for fifjv, firjvog : and ttol- 
(iav, Tzoifievog, for Ttoifi/jv, iroifievog. So, also, "EXkdv, "EXXdveg, for 
"E2,?i7iv, 'FjXTitfvEg : and veordg, veordrog, for veoryg, veoTrjrog. Even 
in the dative plural of <pprjv, gen. (ppevog, Pindar has (ppaaiv for (f>peolv f 
but with a short a, however. 



DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



101 



Exceptions. The exceptions to this Dorism are aldrjp, #r/p, 
gen. ti-qpoc, and all proper names in rnp. 

2. In the Ionic dialect, on the other hand, n most commonly takes 
the place of the long a ; as, -&6pn^ for dupat; : olrj^ for ola$ : Iprj^ for 
iepa^. In Homer, the usage fluctuates in the case of ifjdp, and we 
have both ipfjpaq and fapuv. The word nap never takes the 7;. 

3. The dative plural, in the Epic language, ends, according to the 
exigencies of the verse, in ci{v), ggl{v), eat(v), and eggl{v). The 
ground-form is eai(v), and in its strengthened shape eaai{v). This 
ending is added, like the other case-endings, to the pure stem of the 
word ; as, kvv-eggl (from kvuv, G. kvv-6c) : vekv-eggl (from vekvc, 
vekv-qc) : TrdvT-EOCL (from 7T<lg, izavT-oc) : av&KT-ecLv (from uvaf, 
uvclkt-os), &c. 

With neuters, which have in the nominative a radical g, this a is 
dropped, since it can not stand between two vowels ; as, ette-eggc 
(/or ekeg-eggl, from etcoc) : Se^u-eggi (for dETTuG-EGGc, from 6e~ac)\ 

In the case of stems ending in av, ev, ov (that is, originally, in af, 
es, of), the v (z. e., F) must be dropped ; as, (36-ecgl (for jSos-EGGi, 
Latin bov-ibus) ; lk-xii-eggl (for l^77T]S-eggl), &c. 

The ending ggl is, in general, appended only to stems that end in 
a vow r el ; as, vekv-ggl, from vekvc, G. vzkv-gc. We have, however, 
also, Ipt-GGiv, i. e., Ipid-GGiv (from Ipic, G. Ipid-og), and commonly 
•xoggI, i. e., Tcod-GGi (from novc, G. irod-oc). — The dative form in act 
never admits this strengthening by means of another g. In neuter 
stems in oc and ac, the first g in the ending ggl belongs to the stem, 
or, in other words, is radical ; as, etteg-gl (from ettoc, G. (ekeg-oc), 
ette-oc : so, also, vekeg-gl, ve^eggl, tevx^o-gl, SerraG-Gi. 

The ground-form egl was commonly employed by the Doric poets 
as well as prose writers. The Ionic prose, also, frequently has this 
form of the dative where the stem ends in v; as, ^tjv-egl, dairy- 

flOV-EGl. 

4. The Genitive and Dative Dual, as in the second declension, end, 
in the Epic language, in ouv ; as, Trodouv, ^EipT/voav. 

5. The Genitive Plural ends, in the Ionic dialect, very frequently in 
eov ; as, xV v ^ v i dvSpiuv, x^^Secju, fivpiadicDV, &c. 

6. The Accusative Singular of words in vg ends sometimes, in the 
Epic language, in a instead of v ; as, Evpta ttovtov, for Evpvv rrovrov : 
so, ixdva for ixdvv : ddia for ijdvv (in Theocritus). So, also, via in 
Homer, from vavc (vdVc, vif-a, nav-em), for vavv. 

7. In the Vocative Singular, the jEolians throw away c ; as, 26k- 
pars for Zunpareg. 

1 2 



102 DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



2. Remarks on Particular Paradigms, 

1. Words in og, Gen. orog. 

Words in ug, genitive urog, drop the r in the dative and accusa- 
tive singular of the Epic dialect, and then contract the stem- vowel 
with the case-vowel ; as, in Homer, idpti for idptiri : and Idpfi for 
ISpura, from idpug, gen. iSpurog. So, yektd for yeXori : y&cj for ye- 
Awra : and by the same analogy, 1%^ for Ix^pa, from ^wp. 

2. Words in gw, Gen. covoc. 

Words in wv, genitive uvog, take sometimes, in the language of 
poetry, the short vowel ; as, Kpoviuv, gen. -tovoe and -iovoc {Homer) ; 
'Afcralov, gen. -uvoe and -ovoc (Eurip.). So, also, Hoeeiddov (Attic 
Ilooeidtiv), gen. -ovoc and -cjvog ; and npuv, gen. rcpuvog : but in 
Hesiod, irpeovog, &c. 

3. Words in ig, Gen. idog. 

The Homeric, Ionic, and Doric dialects often inflect these words, 
especially proper names, in tog instead of idog ; as, firjvig, gen. fjirjviog 
(Horn.) ; Qefitg, gen. Qeptog (Herod.) ; Kvirpig, gen. Kvnpiog (Theocr.) ; 
Udpig, gen. lidptog (Pind.). So, Qeriog, *Iciog, &c, da/. Qerl (Horn.), 
Sometimes, however, the contracted dative ends also in a short 
vowel ; as, airoTiig (gen. commonly dnoXidog ; Ionic, diroTiiog) : dat. 
anc-li. — The Epic dialect, however, in the case of words in ig, idog, 
takes the dative only in i instead of Si ; all the other cases have the 
common inflexion with the characteristic 6. 

Words in nig, gen. nidog, are sometimes contracted by the poets 
in the course of inflection ; as, rrapnig, gen. Trapytdog, contr. iraprjdog : 
Nnpnig, nom. plur. Nnpntdeg, contr. Nnpydeg. — In place of idog the 
Dorians said trog ; as, 'Aprifiirog for 'Aprtfiidog. 

4. Words in ag, Gen. arog. 

The Ionians threw out the r in such words. Hence, in Homer, 
we have such forms as these, namely, repaa, repduv, repawn i, from 
Tspag, gen. reparog : and from tcepag, gen. neparog : the dat. sing. 
Kepa, the nom. plur. tcepa, gen. aepdov, dat. KEpdsoGi and nepaoi. So, 
again, from Kpeag, gen. Kpearog, we have, in the plural, nom. tcpea, 
gen. Kpeduv, tcpetiv, and tcpeiuv, dat. Kpiaai. With the Ionians, the a 
in these words often changes to e ; as, nepeog, nepea, nepECdv : repea : 
Kpieaciv, &c. 

5. Words in avg, evg, ovg. 
In place of ypavg, Homer has yprjvg, dat. yprjt, voc.ypnv and ypnv. 



DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



103 



In the Ionic dialect, the long a passes, in like manner, into n ; as, 
gen. yprjog, nom. plur. yprjeg. The same takes place in the case 
of vavg, the Ionic inflection of which has already been given 
(page 88). 

In nouns in evg, the Epic dialect takes 77 instead of the e, in all 
cases where the v (i. e., F) of the stem has fallen away ; and this is 
done in order to compensate by the length of the vowel for the v 
(i. e., F) that has been dropped. Thus we have, nom. paoilevc, voc. 
dacriXev, dat. plur. fiaGikevGi, but gen. BaGihrjog, dat. fiaaikfii^ ac- 
cus. fiaaikria, nom. plur. j3aGi?i7}eg, gen. (SaGiXycov, accus. /3aot?i7)dc. 
And it is to be observed that the long a in the accusative of the 
Attic dialect, namely, -ea y and -sag, here becomes short. — In proper 
names we find n or e employed, as the exigencies of the verse re- 
quire ; thus, 'OdvGGqog or 'Odvofjog, and also 'Odvaa£og : 'OSvafjl and 
'OdvoeZi 'OdvGcrja and 'Odvcia. Others, again, such as 'Arpevg and 
Tvdsvg, always have the e ; as, Tvdeog, ei, ia, and fj. 

The word (Sovg, in the Epic and Ionic dialects, occurs most fre- 
quently without contraction in the oblique cases ; as, gen. (3o6g, 
nom. plur. /36eg, gen. /3oov, dat. fioecGL, accus. /36ag, &c. The Do- 
rians have /3ug in the nominative, and (3tiv in the accusative. This 
latter form occurs, also, in Homer (//., vii., 238), with the significa- 
tion of " a shield covered with ox-hide." 

6. Proper Names in K?Jng. 
In these proper names, the Epic dialect contracts ee into n ; as, 
'Hpa/ching, gen. -tcXfjog ; dat. -kXtj'L ; accus. -Kkfia (and in Hesiod, 
-Khea) ; voc. 'HpaKleig. The lonians and Dorians, and sometimes, 
also, the poets, throw out an e on account of the verse ; as, Ilepc- 
KAeoc, -ii, &c. — It must be remarked, moreover, that proper names 
in K%fjg have, likewise, another form in nlog y which is interchanged 
with the other, according to the exigencies of the verse ; as, T^t- 
K?i7jg and 'lyuchog. Homer always employs the nominative form 
UarpoK?iog, but he has in the accusative Harponlov and ILarpoK^fja : 
and in the vocative, UdrpoKXe and JlarpoKleig. 

7. Words in 6g and 6, Gen. dog. 
Words of this class have, among the Epic and Ionic writers, as 
among the Attics, the contracted or short form • except xpug and its 
compounds; as, XP°°S, XP '^ XP° a - — The Ionic dialect frequently 
makes the accusative singular end in ovv instead of u ; as, 'Iw, 
accus. 'lovv : #c5f, accus. rjovv. — In Doric and JEolic, the genitive sin- 
gular ends in olg and fig ; as in Moschus, !Aolg, rag 9 Ax fig. 



104 



DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



8. Words in ag, Gen. aog. 

The dative singular of these words is, in Homer, either un con- 
tracted or contracted, according to the exigencies of the verse ; as, 
yrjpai and yrjpa : deira, ceka. The nominative and accusative plural, 
however, are always contracted ; as, Sena. 

9. Words in og, Gen. eog. 

In these words the Epic dialect employs the uncontracted or con- 
tracted forms, according to the exigencies of the verse, except in 
the genitive plural, which last always remains uncontracted. — The 
genitive singular in eog is contracted, in some substantives, by both 
the Epic writers and the Dorians, into evg, namely, 'Epe6evg, dap- 
6evg, i&dpGevg, ftepevg : in the others it remains uncontracted. The 
nominative and accusative plural are regularly uncontracted in the 
Epic writers, but must be pronounced with synizesis. The geni- 
tive plural is always in eov. — The Ionic agrees, in these respects, 
with the Epic dialect. 

In cireog, K^iog, deog, ^peoc, tne Epic dialect lengthens the e, some- 
times into et, at other times into rj ; as, gen. GTceiovg, dat. anfjl^ 
accus. oireog and anelog y plur. gen. Gizeiov, dat. ctzeggl and gtztjeggi. 
■ — Gen. deiovg. — xp£°£ ano - XP e ^°C- — tO^ea and Kkela. 

10. Words in vg, Gen. vog. 

In the Epic dialect, these words contract the dative singular ; as, 
bi£vi, bpxTjGTvl, K%7j(kfT, Itjvl, venvl. The accusative plural, according 
to the exigencies of the verse, is sometimes left uncontracted ; at 
other times, and more commonly, contracted ; as, Ixdvg for ixdvag : 
b(f>pvg, yevvg, dpvg : but veKvag always remains uncontracted. The 
nominative plural never undergoes contraction ; it is sometimes, 
however, pronounced with synizesis. The dative plural ends in 
vggi and veGGL (two syllables) ; as, IxOvgglv and IxOvsggiv. 

11. Words in eg and X, Gen. log (Attic eog), and in vg and v, Gen. 
vog (Attic eog). 

Words in Tg, Gen. Attic, eog, retain, in the Epic and Ionic dialects, 
the i of the stem throughout all the cases, and undergo contraction 
in the dative singular always in Ionic, and in the accusative plural 
commonly in the same dialect ; as, izolig, -iog, -I, -tv ; TroXieg, -iov, 
—lgl, -tag, and Ig. — In the dative singular, however, we find, in Ho- 
mer, the endings el and et ; as, TroGel and iroGei, from Tcooig : vefisG- 
cei from vejaeGLg : fidvre'i from \idvrig : iztoae'L from irrolig : ir6?>ci 
from noAig. 



ANOMALOUS NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 105 



In some words, the c of the stem has, in other of the cases, also 
passed into e ; as, knal^eLc for enuAt-cac, dat. plur. knuAt-eoiv. This 
happens particularly in ttoTus, which, besides this, moreover, can, 
according to the exigencies of the verse, even make the e pass into 
v ; and also in oic. In Homer the following forms of both these 
words appear, namely : 



Sing. G. 7ro/Uof, 
D. 

A. tto/Uv, 
Plur. N. ttoTilec, 

G. TToXlCJVy 
D. TTOklZGOly 



irrohioc, 



(nolrja, Hesiod). 



A. iroAiag (3 and 2 syll.), iroleie^ itohrjas* 
Sing. G> dioc, oioe, 

A. oiv. 
Plur. G. biov, oltiv, 

D. otscGiVy oleglv, oeaacv, 
A. dig. 

Neuters in £, Gen. Attic eoc, retain, in the Ionic dialect, the t in 
inflection ; as, GLvniu, gen. glv^ttloc^ dat. Givr}ixii — Dual, nom. glvtj- 
Trte, gen. GLvnmotv. — Plural, nom. Givr/ina, gen. oivrjmuVi dat. givi}- 
trial. Sometimes, however, they take the common mode of inflec- 
tion, with e ; as, GLvrjneoc, Givynei, dual GLvrjiree, glvv^eolv , plur. 
civrjirea, Givrjniuv, gcv^ttsgl. 

Those words in vc which, in the Attic dialect, take ewe in the gen- 
itive, have, in Ionic, the genitive in eoc ; as, nvxeoc : except, how- 
ever, fyxehvc, gen. eyxeXvoc. In the dative singular, Homer uses 
both the uncontracted and contracted form ; as, evpii, ffjfofcfc, tca&tei. 
— In the nominative plural, the uncontracted and contracted forms 
stand equally well. — In the accusative plural, the uncontracted form 
in eac is the regular one, which termination eae can, if the verse re- 
quire it, be pronounced as one syllable ; as, ireleKeac (three sylla- 
bles). — In place of the contracted form noleZg % from the adjective 
itolivc, which used to be read in many passages, the form n-oXeac 
(three syllables) has been restored. 



ANOMALOUS NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

I. That is called anomalous which is inconsistent with 
the prescribed laws of formation ; and hence, by anomalous 
nouns of the third declension are here meant all such as 



106 ANOMALOUS NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

deviate in their inflection from the rules and analogies which 
have just been mentioned. 

II. Anomalous nouns of the Third Declension may be 
divided into three classes. 

III. The First Class embraces all those substantives 
whose nominative has a form that can not, according to 
general analogy, be derived from the stem which is indica- 
ted by the genitive ; as, rj yvvrj, " the woman" genitive yv- 
vaac-og. 

IV. The Second Class comprises those substantives 
which, while they have but one form for the nominative, 
yet follow, in some or all of the other cases, two modes of 
formation ; which two modes of formation, however, can 
proceed, according to the general rule, from one and the 
same nominative-form. 

To this head belong many substantives in tg , having two 
modes of inflection, one of which must be referred back to 
a stem ending in a T-sound, and the other to a stem end- 
ing with a vowel ; as, opvcg, " a bird plural, opviOeg and 
bpveiq. Substantives of this kind are called Heteroclites. 

V. The Third Class embraces those substantives which 
have only one form of the nominative, but two modes of in- 
flection in some or all of the cases, one of which two modes 
can be deduced from the nominative, while the other sup- 
poses a different nominative-form. Thus, depdnuv, " a 
servant" gen. ^epdnovrog, accus. depdnovTa, and poetic 
depana, which last must be deduced from a nominative 
tispaip. 

This species of formation is called Metaplasm, and the 
substantives that come under it are termed Metaplasta. 

Remark 1. The source of almost all anomalies is the rich- 
ness of the Greek language in collateral forms of one and the 
same word, most of them with different inflections, but similar 
signification. These collateral forms partly belong to different 
dialects ; as, gen. £o>, Attic ; yog, gen. yovc, Epic and Ionic ; 
and, again, ^»iMa£, gen. fvhauoe, Attic ; ^vAa/cof, gen. ^vTlukov. 



ANOMALOUS NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 107 



Ionic ; and were partly retained by the poetic language for the 
sake of greater fullness of sound, or from the requirements of 
the verse, or for purposes of variety. 

Remark 2. In the list of anomalous nouns that follows, those 
alone are given at length which have not been specially men- 
tioned in the remarks on the paradigms of the third declension. 
The others are referred back to the pages where they have been 
already treated of. 



LIST OF ANOMALOUS NOUNS. 
'ATlgjv, "a threshing-floor." Page 84. 
'kvrjp, "a man" Page 82. 
'AiroTiTiav, " Apollo." Page 85. 
'Apvoc, " of a lamb." Page 83. 
Bperae, "an image." Page 93. 
Buy. Accusative. Page 103. 

Tow, to , "the knee." Gen. yovaroc, &c. ; dat. plur. yovaaiv. The 
nominative, therefore, points to a stem yov, and the oblique 
cases to a longer one, yovar, whence another and an early 
nominative form yovac. — In Homer we find the following forms, 
namely : Gen. sing, yovvaroc and yovvoc, nom. plur. yovvara 
and yovva y gen. yovvuv, dat. yovvaai (yovvaaai) and yovveaac. 
Compare Sopv. 

Remark 1. The form yovvaaai, in II., ix., 488, and xvii., 451, 
is suspicious, and the other reading yovveaat ought, without 
doubt, to be preferred. 

Remark 2. The Ionians said yovv, yovvaroc, yovvart, &c. 
The Epic form yovvoc has the o lengthened into ov, after the 
Ionic fashion ; as in ovvo/ua for ovofia, novpoc for tcopoc. 
Tvvjj, 7), "the woman." This noun is declined as follows, the 
oblique cases being formed as if from a nominative yvvait;. — 
Buttmann thinks that the original form was yvvaelg. 



Singular. 
N. yvvij, 
G. yvvatK-oc, 
D. yvvaiK-i, 
A. yvvatn-a, 
V. yvvai. 



Dual. 



Plural. 



N. yvvaZti-e, 
G. yvvain-oLV, 
D. yvvacK-oiv, 
A. yvvalK-e, 
V. yvva.LK.-E. 

Remark. The declension of yvvrj would appear, in reality, to 
be a metaplasm, since the nominative yvvrj seems to belong to 
the first declension. This supposition is strengthened by the 
circumstance of the ancient grammarians adducing regular 



N. yvvatn-ee, 
G. yvvatK-cbv, 
D. yvvai%L(v), 
A. yvvalK-ag, 
V. yvvatK-eg. 



108 ANOMALOUS NOUNS OF TilE THIRD DECLENSION. 



forms, according to the first declension, namely, yvvrjv and yv- 
vdg, from Pherecrates (Etym. Mag., p. 241, 26), and nom. plur. 
yvvai, from Philippides, Bekk., A. Gr. — The vocative yvvai is 
formed on the same principle as dva and ydla (stem uvclkt, 
ydXatcT), since euphony did not allow a word to end in k or kt. 
Aiog, Ail. Vid. Zevc. 

Aopv, to, " the spear." Gen. SopaToc, &c. ; dat. plur. dopaoi. The 
nominative, therefore, points to a stem Sop, and the oblique 
cases to a longer one, dopar, whence another and an earlier 
nominative form, dopac. (Compare yovv.) — In Homer we have 
the following forms occurring, namely : Gen. sing, dovparog 
and dovpog, dat. dovpari and dovp'i, dual, nom., &c, dovpe, 
plur. nom. dovpara and dovpa, gen. dovpuv, dat. dovpaai and 
dovpeooL. 

Remark. Among the Attic poets we have, from Sopv, a gen. 
dopoe, dat. dope : and in the expression dopt klelv, this form of 
the dative is employed even by the Attic prose writers. We 
also find a dative form dopei in Aristophanes (Pac, 357), al- 
though the reading is not yet fully settled ; and a plural form 
66pn in Euripides. (Rhes., 274.) 

"Eap, rip, to. Page 85. 

"EyxeTivc, rj. Page 98. 

Zsvg, " Jupiter." Gen. Aide, dat. Au, accus. Ala, as if from a 
nominative At'f, voc.Zev. (Compare page 95.) Collateral, but 
less common forms, occurring in the poets and later prose wri- 
ters, are, gen. Znvog i dat. Znvt, accus. Zrjva, as from a nomi- 
native Zrjv. 

Remark 1. Zsvg appears to have come from the Boeotian 
Aevc, through the intermediate form Aasvg or ZSevc : and Asvg 
is the same as Aef g : or, rather, it is nothing more than Aig, 
i. e., AlSg, with a change of the e into i ; and thus we have 
Aifi in an ancient inscription mentioned by Bceckh. {Corp. 
Inscript., L, p. 47.) 

Remark 2. Various forms of rarer occurrence are, nom. Zav, 
Zag, At?, Bdsvg, Aav : gen. Zavog, Aavog : accus. Zava, Zrjv, Zevv. 
(Consult Maittaire, de Dialect, p. 268, F.) 

Remark 3. In Sanscrit, djo, "heaven," comes from div, 
which is itself derived from div, " to be brilliant," &c. 
"Hpug, o, " the hero." Contracts the accusative-ending ua into «. 
Page 92. 

Qefiis, rj, " Themis," or the goddess of justice, has in Attic, with 
^Eschylus, gen. Os/iidoc, &c— In the old and Epic language, 



ANOMALOUS NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 109 



&£/luc, "right," and Oifitg, "Themis" have the gen. -&Efxtarog 
and 9£[iloto£ : Doric, defitToc and Qe/itrog. (Plato, also, has 9e- 
fiLToc for the goddess. Rep., ii., p. 380.)— -In the common lan- 
guage this word remained as an appellative only in the expres- 
sion de/tic earl, "fas est," where it appears as an indeclinable 
word ; like ftt/urov kari. Thus we have, in Plato, paol &efiig 
tivai (not &£/lciv), " they say that it is right." Among the Attic 
poets, also, we find to fiy &€[ilc. 

Bepanuv, 6. "the servant" Gen. ftepanovroc. With Euripides, 
and in epigrams, we have the accusative-form ^epaira; plur. 
tiepaneg, as from -&ipaip, which nominative-form is found, also, 
in a later prose writer. 

Opt!;, 7}, "the hair." Gen. rptxoc ; dat. rpix'h &c. ; dat. plur., 
$pL%i. Compare page 74. 

'Idpuc, 6, " the sweat." Gen. IdpfiToc. In Epic, dat idpcp, for idpu- 
ri, accus. idpu, for idpura. Page 102. 

'Ivaovc, "Jesus." Gen. 'lnaov, dat. '\ncov, accus. f lyaovv f voc. 
'Inaov. 

Remark. This is a very simple mode of inflection, and con- 
sists in having the nominative end in e and the accusative in v, 
while the other cases terminate in the unaltered diphthong or 
vowel that precedes the final c in the nominative. In the same 
way with 'Incrovc we must decline the Egyptian name Oa/uovg, 
the genitive and accusative of which, namely, Oa t uov and 9a- 
fiovv, appear in Plato. (Phad.r., p. 274.) To suppose, however, 
as some have done, that this is a foreign mode of declining, in- 
troduced into the Greek, is altogether erroneous. It is. on the 
contrary, a genuine Greek form of inflection ; since it not only 
occurred, as the grammarians inform us (Lasc, lih. iii., p. 182), 
in ordinary life, in the case of shortened forms and terms of 
endearment ending in vr ; as, diovve, gen. dtovv, shortened from 
Aiovvgoc {Lobeck, ad Phryn., 436), and antyvc, gen. arrtyv, &c, 
"papa but when carefully considered, it is the same, in fact, 
with the Attic mode of declining in oc, gen. u, of the second 
declension ; and the Doric form of inflection, in ag, gen. a, dat. 
a, of the first. 



1. The Lexicons make inrfyvc form the genitive &n<pvoc. Butt- 
man n, however, is in favor of anfyv as the genitive form. The 
word occurs in Theocritus only in the nominative and accusative. 
(Idyll., xv., 13, 14.) It is classed, however, with diovve by the scho- 
liast to Dionysius Thrax, p. 857 (Bekker, Anecd. Gr., vol. ii.), and by 
the Etym. Mag. . (Buttmann, Ausf. Spr., vol. i., p. 203.) 



110 ANOMALOUS NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



'I^cjp, 6, "Ichor." Gen. Ix&poc, accus. for t^wpa. Page 102. 

Kdpd, to, " /Ac head." Ionic /cap?;. From the first form, though 
so frequent in the Attic writers, we find in the same no other 
case but the dative /caps. To /cap?/, however, Buttmann as- 
signs the cases Kapnroc and Kapnrc : along with which there 
also exists, in the Epic writers, a fuller form Kaprjarog, &c. For 
this last a nominative Kaprjag is assumed, which appears in 
Antimachus ; and Kdprjrog is thought to be shortened from /ca- 
prjarog. In Homer's Hymn to Ceres {v. 12), the plural form 
«apa also occurs, which comes by a regular contraction from 
Kapaa or fcapqa. 

We must connect with what has preceded, the likewise po- 
etic forms which presuppose a nominative npaag and Kpdg. The 
nominative Kpuag does not, in truth, occur ; and Kpdg is only 
found in the grammarians. (Cramer, Anecd., iii., 385.) Still, 
however, they may safely be assumed to complete the analogy. 
The first of the poetic forms referred to as coming from these 
two sources is Epic and neuter, namely, gen. Kpdarog, dat. Kpd- 
an ; plur. nom. Kpdara, &c. The other, gen. Kparog, dat. /cpa- 
tl, is common to all the poets ; but, by a singular deviation, al- 
though contracted from Kpaarog, &c, it is of the masculine gen- 
der, as clearly appears from the accusative Kpara, in Od., viii., 
92, with which later poets also agree ; as, Eurip., rbv Kpara, 
rove; Kpdrag. And yet, what is surprising, Sophocles employs 
the form Kpara as neuter. Thus, nom. and accus. sing, to 
Kpara. (Philoct., 1456. — Compare Schol. ad Phazniss., 1166, 
with Valckenaer's note ; Brunch, ad Philoct., 1001, 1456 ; Butt- 
mann, Ausf. Spr., vol. i., p. 233.) 

Kepag, to, " the horn." Page 76. 

KXecg, 7], u the key." Gen. kIelS Sc : dat. KkeiS-i : accus. K^eid-a, 
more commonly kKuv : plur. nom. KleZd-ec : accus. K?ietdag: 
both contracted Klelc. The Ionians said Kkrfiq, Klnld-oc, kttqtd't, 
K^nlS-a. The old Attic writers, K/ijc, K?iyd-og, K^yd-i, Klyd-a. 

Kvtyag, to, " the darkness." Page 93. 

Kpdac, Kpdg. Vid. Kapa. 

Kpeag, to, "the flesh." Page 77. 

Kvkeuv, 6, " the mixture." Page 84. 

Kvuv, 6, rj, " the dog." Gen. Kvv-6g : dat. kvv-c : accus. Kvv-a : 
voc. kvov. Plur. nom. Kvv-eg: gen. kvv-uv : dat. kvgI: accus. 
Kvv-aq. 

Kuag, to, "the fleece." Gen.Kueog: plur. Kuea, Ktjeot(v). Page 93. 
Atna, to, "oil, fat." In the Epic language always found in con- 



ANOMALOUS NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. Ill 



junction with tTiaiu, except in Od., vi., 277. Thus, we have 
d^eiipaadai Xnf kXaiw, xp^ aal ana " XP CGaG ® al ^' C7r ' ^atu. So, 
again, in Ionic prose, in Hippocrates* khalu xp' LWV Xma rdc x e ^ 
pac, and, under another form, rti fiodlvL) a/iec^ioOu Tdita. In 
Attic prose, moreover, we have uXutyzoQai, %pUcdai ?uita. From 
these examples it has been inferred that hiiTa is here a dative, 
from to Urea, gen. Xnta-oc, dat. liira-'i, contracted Xina, which 
last became, through daily and general use, shortened into /una 
(™). According to this view of the subject, klaiu must be an 
adjective, and /UV elauo will signify " with olive-oil." Others 
make Titna in such constructions an accusative singular, from 
a nominative Xity, and to be used adverbially, " to anoint one's 
self fatly (i. e., thickly) with oil" This is opposed by Buttmann 
(Ausf Spr., vol. i., p. 235, note), but it derives strong probability 
from Hippocr., 277, 39, where ?ilna certainly appears as an ac- 
cusative. 

Maprvc, 6, " the witness." Gen. fxdpTvp-oc, dat. jLidprvp-i, accus. 
fidprvp-a, more seldom [idprvv, plural, dat. udprvGi(v). — The 
nominative-form fidprvp is JEolic. It came again into general 
use among the later writers, especially in the Christian sense 
of " a martyr." 

Mete, 6, " the month." Gen. finv-og. It is the Ionic nominative 
instead of jur/v, and yet we find it used by Plato, Tim., p. 39, C. 
(Compare CratyL, p. 409, C.) The dative fieivi occurs in an 
inscription ; otherwise all the oblique cases are taken from finv : 
but if we suppose, with Bockh, that the original form of the 
nominative was fiivg (compare Latin mens-is), changed to {ielc, 
like &ivc, -&EVTOC, changed to &e'ic, Sevtoc (consult page 37), then 
this dative fieivi will be dubious. 

NaSf, ij, " the ship." Page 88. 

"Oic, 6, 7i, " the sheep." Page 98. 

"Opvtg, 6, rj, "the bird." Gen. bpvW-oc, dat. bpvlO-t, &c. The 
plural has a secondary form, declined like noTug, with the ex- 
ception of the dative ; thus, 

Plural. N. opvld-e? and bpveie, 
G. bpvtO-ov M bpvetov, 
D. bpvlai, 

A. bpvld-ag " bpveie 2nd bpvlc, 

V. bpvld-ec " bpvetc. 
The Dorians said, gen. bpvlx~oc, dat. bpvlx-i 9 accus, bpvlx-a 
and bpviv. 

Ovc, to, " the ear" Gen. wr-6f , dat. ur-l, &c. Plural, nom. &T-a, 



112 ANOMALOUS NOUNS OP THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



gen. ot-cjv, dat. d)at(v). Homer uses the open forms, as if from 
ovag, except in the accusative singular and dative plural, in the 
latter of which he employs both the open and the closed form. 
Thus, (ovag), gen. ovaT-og, dat. ovar-t. Plural, nom. ovar- a, gen. 
ovut-dv, dat. ovacri. and dot. The Dorians said &g, G>r-6f, ur-l, 
&c. The Cretan and Laconian dialects said avg, avT-og, &c. 
Compare the Latin aur4s, ausculto, the German ohr, our ear, &c. 
Ueipaievg, 6, ** the Pirceus" Page 87. ^ 

Hvv^, jy, "the Pnyx." Gen. 7rvKv-6g i dat. 7rvKv4 t accus. ixvKv-a. 
The nominative evidently has undergone metathesis for the 
sake of euphony, as we may easily infer from the adjective 
nvKvoc, " crowded" which belongs to the same stem. The 
original form, therefore, must have been tzvkvc. — Later writers 
inflect as follows : Gen. itvvk-6c, dat. ttvvk-l, accus. 7rvvK-d t 
&c. (Compare Buttmann, Ausf. Spr., vol. k, p. 237.) 

Uoceidtiv, 6, "Neptune." Page 84. 

Ylooig, 6, 77, " a spouse." Gen. Troat-og (and so in Attic, not Tcoae- 
og), dat. noaet (Epic iroaei), accus. ttoglv, voc. iroctg and ttogl. 
(Compare the declension of nopTig, &c, page 98.) 

6, "the moth." Gen. ce-6g. Plural, nom. oeeg, gen. aeuv, 
&c. Later writers inflect as follows : Nom. ong^ gen. anr-bg^ 
dat. cr/T-l, &c. 

to, '" the filth." Page 78. The true accentuation is oicup, 
not GKCjp. (Dindorf, Aristoph., Ran.. 146.) 

rj, "the weal." Gen. o/iudiyyog, &e. (Horn., II., ii., 267; 
xxiii., 716.) The nominative-form on&diyZ, and the genitive 
G{iudiKog, appear in the grammarians, but without any example 
to confirm them. {Buttmann, Ausf. Spr., vol. i., p. 239.) 
Tlneog, to, "the cave." Page 104. 

Xrdysg, al, "the drops." An irregular nominative plural, assigned 

to arayuv, and coming, as it were, from ard%. 
2 reap, to, "the tallow." Page 85. 

Tdv, or Tdv. Only as a form of address, mostly in a good sense, 
u t&v or & Tdv, " sir," " my good friend," and peculiar to the 
Attic dialect. It occurs first in Sophocles ((Ed. Tyr., 1145; 
Philoct., 1387) ; frequently in Aristophanes and Plato ; rarely 
(according to Hermann, ad Soph., Philoct., 1373, never) in a bad 
sense. — Even the ancients differed much about the origin and 
form of this word. Some, as Philem. de Nomin., 319, &c., wrote 
it urav : others, as Elym. Mag., p. 825, 15, urdv : others, as 
Apollonrus Dyscolus (Bekkcr, Anec. Gr., p. 569, 11), and Dio- 
nysius Thrax {Bekker, A. G., p. 949, 24), w rd>. So, also, some 



ANOMALOUS NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 113 



modern editors write it cj 'rav, taking it as the vocative of krdv, 
like ueyiardv, t-vvdv, &c. Others, u 'rav, as if vocative of errjg : 
others, as Hermann (I. c.) and Bekker, o 'rav ; others, as Din- 
dorf, d Tav or c5 rav, without apostrophe. Passow follows 
these, thinking it a shortened form of the Doric rfjvog (accord- 
ing to the analogous usage of ovroc, d ovroe), or referring it, 
with Buttmann (Ausf. Spr., vol. i., p. 224), to ru, tvvtj, as an 
old dialectic vocative of the second personal pronoun. Donald- 
son (New Cratylus, p. 162) adopts the latter view, comparing 
the Sanscrit tvam, which is also the pronoun of the second per- 
son ; so that d rdv will be the same as " you." 
Tptxoc, &c. See &ptg, 

'Toijp, to, u the water.'" Page 78. Hesiod has the dative-form 
vdei. 

$6olg, contr. <f>docg, 6, " the cake." Gen. (bdoL-og and (from odoig, q) 

ydotd-og. — Plural, nom. (pdoetg and Qdoidsc. 
$peap, to, " the well." Gen. (ppedroc and (ppidrog, contracted typri- 

rog, &c. 
Xetp, rj, " the hand." Page 81. 

Xovg, 6, " the measure" contracted from x° oc - This noun is de- 
clined partly like (3ovc (page 86), namely, gen. x°°S* dat. 
accus. x°^v> — Plural, nom. x° £C t S en - X°^ v -> dat. x ovaL > accus. 
Xoag: and partly like vavg, namely, gen. ^oof, accus. ^6d, as 
Elmsley (ad Aristoph., Acharn., 1013), and now Dindorf, write 
these forms (ad Aristoph., Pac, 537). The grammarians refer 
this latter declension to a supposed noun, x o£ vc, and write the 
genitive x°& c * accus. sing. x°&, accus. plur. x°^ c - (Lobeck, 
Paraleip., 233 ; Buttmann, Ausf. Spr., vol. i., p. 241.) — Observe 
that 6 x°v c > " tne heap of earth" has only gen. x°° c , accus. 
Xovv, &e. 

Xpug, 6, M the skin." Gen. ^pwr-of , dat. xpuT-t, accus. ^pwr-a. 
In Epic and Ionic, we have gen. xP ° c i dat. XP°U accus. xpoa, 
as always in Homer and Hesiod, except gen. xp^-og y in //., x., 
575 ; accus. ^pwr-a, in Od., xviii., 172, 179 ; Hes., Op. et D., 554. 
— The Attic dative XP9 i s on ty found in certain forms of ex- 
pression ; as, ev xp&y " close to the skin," &c. — The nom. XP°°£> 
contr. xp°vc, given in most lexicons, is a nonentity. 

r Qg, to, u the ear." Gen. hr-dc, &c. Doric form for qvc, dro^ 
which see. 

K2 



114 DEFECTIVE NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

DEFECTIVE NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
Some nouns of the Third Declension want one or more 
eases, and hence are termed defective. The existing cases, 
however, of such nouns only appear, for the most part, in 
certain phrases or combinations, which may serve to ac- 
count for the non-appearance of the rest. The following 
are the principal nouns of this kind : 

&£[iag, to, " the body" of frequent occurrence in Homer, who often 
joins it with eldog and (pvrj. He only uses it, however, in the 
accusative singular, especially absolutely ; as, fiiicpbc de/iac, 
"smalt in stature;" so, dpiCTOc 6efj.ag, defiac adav&TOLCLv some, 
&c. It occurs, also, in the nominative in other writers ;• but 
besides the nominative and accusative it is not found. Later 
writers use it as indeclinable. 

McU?/, t), "the arm-pit" Found only in the genitive and accusa- 
tive : in the former, in the phrase vtto iiakr\c, " under the arm ;" 
for which, in later writers, we have, also, the accusative vnd 
fidXvv. The noun fiaax^v takes its place in other cases. 

MiXe. An Attic vocative, from a nominative not in use. It is 
very frequent in Aristophanes and Plato, as a familiar address 
to both sexes : o> fi&e, il my friend" " my dear" &c. In later 
writers it is addressed to men only. It is usually considered 
as an abbreviated form from fieleog, for fiiXee, like rfki for rfkz? : 
but as it certainly occurs in a good sense, for example, in Plato, 
Thecet., 178, E, where "wretch" is wholly inapplicable, Buttmann 
refers it to a different nominative fieXoc, from the root /ueXi. 
(Compare Latin met and melior.) 

*Ovap, to, " the dream," opposed to a waking and true vision vnap, 
which see, under this same head of Defectives. It is only used 
in the nominative and accusative singular, the other cases be- 
ing supplied from ovetpog and bveipov. In the accusative it has 
an adverbial force: H in a dream," "in sleep;" and this was 
mostly its use among the Attic writers. Besides these, an ir- 
regular plural bveipaTa occurs in Od., xx., 87, to which later 
writers formed the singular genitive and dative bveiparoc, bvec- 
paTL (JEsch., Choeph., 531, and Plato), and more frequently the 
plural genitive and dative, bvetpaTov, bveipaat {Herod., i., 120, 
&e.). Even a singular nominative, oveipap, is quoted by the 
Etym. Mag., p. 47, 53. 

"Qaoe, t6, "the two eyes." Neuter dual, nom. and accus. of fre- 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 115 



quent occurrence in Homer, who, however, adds the adjective 
plural (II. , xiii., 435, 616), ogge Qaeiva, alfxaroevra. A genitive 
and dative plural, as if of the second declension, namely, oggcov, 
and oggoic, oggolgl, subsequently occur ; commencing, how- 
ever, as early as Hesiod. In the singular, Eustathius cites a 
dative oggec, whence grammarians assume a double nomina- 
tive, to oggoc, and 6 oggoc, which, however, do not really oc- 
cur. (Spitzner, de Vers. Heroic, p. 75.) 

"OcpeXog, to, "advantage ," "aid." Only used in the nominative, as 
well by Homer as by the Attic writers. Thus, at /c' oyEAoc tl 
yevufteda, "whether we can be of any advantage" (II., xiii., 236) ; 
and in Attic, tl drjf av Eirjc dyehoc ij[iiv, "what advantage couldst 
thou be to us 1" (Aristoph., Plut., 1 152.) — In the same way fjdoc 
is employed, but by the Epic writers. 

"Xizap, to, "the waking vision," as opposed to ovap. Occurs only 
in the nominative and accusative singular. As an accusative 
absolute, it has, like ovap, an adverbial force ; as, ovap rj virap 
tjjv, " to pass life asleep or awake" So, again, as vnap denotes 
a true appearance, and ovap merely a dream, we have the 
phrase, ovte ovap ovte vnap, " neither in appearance nor in reali- 
ty" i. e., not at all. 

Xpioc, to, " the debt." Attic for xp^°C- According to the Atti- 
cists, the word is indeclinable, and xp^ is a l so tne f° rm of the 
genitive and accusative singular. The plural, to, xp^ & c > i s 
borrowed from ^peof, gen. xp£° vc - The dative singular and 
plural, however, are not found. — The Epic writers said XP ELCJ C 
and xP er ° c > f° r XP^C- 

Remark 1. The following, from the Epic dialect, belong to 
this same head of defectives : 

1. Ale, 6, " the lion" (originally life). It occurs in the Iliad 
in the nominative merely, except in //., xi., 480, where is the 
accusative Xiv. In the later Epic writers we have a nomina- 
tive and dative plural, Xiec, Xeggl, so that the genitive singular 
would be Tiioc. Aristarchus made the nominative oxyton Xic. 

2. ^tlxoc, Trig, "of the row." A genitive singular, supposed 
to come from a nominative gti%, which does not, however, oc- 
cur. In the plural we have the nominative and accusative, 
GTLxeg and GTixac, the other cases being taken from gtIxoc, 
which is, in general, most used in prose. 

3. Am, tu). A dative, as if from a nom. to Xt or Xi, "linen" 
The form ?ura, also, occurs, which appears to be the accusative 
plural, not singular. ( Wolf, Anal, iv., p. 501.) 



116 VARIETIES OF FORM IN THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



Remark 2. Several adverbs, also, belong to this head, which 
are, in fact, separate cases ; as, kirLKhrjv, " by surname ;" eKtno- 
hqc, 44 at the top ;" et;ai(j>vnc, "on a sudden" &c. 

Remark 3. Those words are called defective in number which, 
either from the meaning which they convey, or from some other 
cause, are only used in one particular number ; as, oi krvclaL, 
"the Etesian winds;" at 'Adfjvaiy "Athens." So the names of 
festivals, games, &c, are only employed in the plural ; as, rd 
'OXv/nua, " the Olympic games." 



VARIETIES OF FORM IN THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

I. A considerable number of substantives occur in Greek, 
having a greater or less diversity of nominative- forms and 
inflections, though the meaning remains the same. This 
diversity arises from different modes of forming the same 
word, either in one and the same declension, or in two dif- 
ferent declensions, and with either the same gender or dif- 
ferent genders ; and it extends either to individual cases 
merely, or to some of the cases and not all, or to all the 
cases combined. 

II. Regularly, only one of the two forms is more usually 
employed in the classic writers, while the other remains 
peculiar, either to the language of poetry, or to individual 
authors. 

III. Nouns having thus more forms than one are called 
by grammarians Redundant ; and these again, as a general 
class, are subdivided into three minor classes, namely, 1. 
4 ■ Redundant" in a more limited sense : 2. Heterodites : 
and, 3. Metaplastic nouns, or such as are subject to meta- 
plasm. 



I. REDUNDANT NOUNS. 
Redundant nouns, in a more limited sense, are those of 
which, in the nominative singular or plural, and through all 
or some of the remaining cases, double forms are found to 
exist. 



REDUNDANT NOUNS. 



117 



I. In the same Declension, and with the same Gender. 
(A.) In the Second Declension only. 
Thus, 6 tecjc and 6 hdoc, "the people."-*- 6 ve6g and 6 vdoc, 11 the 
temple" — 6 "kay&c and 6 hayoc, "the hare"- — 6 rauc, 11 the peacock" 
Nom. plur. raw and raoi. This word falls, also, under metaplastic 
nouns : page 122. — 6 6p(j>6c and 6 6p<$>oc, "the orphus" a species of 
sea-fish. — 6 tcdlicoc and 6 k&Xoc, " the rope." Apollonius Rhodius has, 
also, a plural ndluec. — rj ahvc^ " the threshing-floor." Nom. plur. 
uXu and aXot, &c. 

Remark 1. The Attic forms in uc are employed, not merely 
by the Attic writers, but by the Ionians also • and so, on the 
other hand, the Attics were no strangers to the forms in oc. 

Remark 2. The following examples belong to the dialects: 
Thus, juaprvg, gen. fidprvpoc, "a witness.'' 1 In Epic, udpTvpoc y 
gen. [laprvpov. — cpvTiat;, gen. QvTkikoc, "a guard." In Ionic, <j>v- 
Xclkoc, gen. tyvTidnov. — typifcn, gen. (ppl/cnc, "a shuddering." More 
Epic, typit;, gen. (ppitcoc. — dXdaTcjp, gen. d?idoTopoc, "an avenging 
deity." But in Sophocles, Antig., 974, dXaoTopoLGiv. — From the 
^Eolic dialect we have such nominatives as alyoc, apirayoc, dva- 
koc< iepanoc, yhavKoc, avhaKOc, dyuvoc, KrjpvKoc, yepovroc (dat. 
plur. yepovroLc) : instead of atf, dpna^, dva^ Upa^ y ylav^ av/laf, 
dyuv, Krjpv!;, yepcov, &C. 

(B.) In the Third Declension only, 
ri Topy6j gen. Topyove, "the Gorgon" (in earlier writers), and ij 
Topyuv, gen. Yopyovoc. 

II. With different Genders, and hence called Heterogeneous. 

In the Second Declension only. 
Thus, 6 vCjtoc and to v&tov, " the back." The latter form is rec- 
ommended by the Atticists as the only good one. — 6 fyyoc and to 
fyybv, " the yoke" — 6 epeTfioc and to kperfiov, " the oar." Both of 
these forms are poetical. — 6 tivfiog and to tivjiov, " the thyme." — 7 
bpiyavoc and to oplyavov, "the herb origanum;" and also other 
names of plants. — In the plural of these heterogeneous nouns, the 
neuter form has the preponderance of usage in its favor, and the 
masculine is less employed. The form oi fryot does not, indeed, 
appear to occur at all. 

III. In different Declensions, and regularly, also, with dif- 

ferent Genders. 
(A.) In the First and Second Declensions, 
at nTievpai, " the ribs" and less frequently t<* nTievpd. 



118 



HETEROCLITES. 



6 (f>66yyoc, "the sound" and fj tydoyyrj. 
6 x^p°Ci " the space" and i) ^wpa, &c. 

(B.) 7)i the First and Third Declensions. 

7) 7ctv£, gen. nrvxoc, " the fold" and y tztvxt}, gen. ktvxvC' 
i] diipa, " the thirst" and to diipoe. 
7) vaxr}, " the dell" (earlier form), and to vdnoc, &c. 
7) /3Xd6n, "the injury " Ionic and poetic, to j3Xd6oc. 
ij yvu/in, " the opinion." Ionic and poetic, to yvtijua. 
to 7zd6oc, " the suffering." Ionic and poetic, 7) nddn. 

It must farther be observed, that the word npsadvc, in the signifi- 
cation of " old," " an old man" occurs only in the accus. sing, itpka- 
6vv, and voc. sing. TrpecrSv, besides the nom. TrpioSvc, all three forms 
being exclusively poetical. Whereas irpeoSvTepoe and izpecdvraTog 
are in common use from Homer downward, and in both poetry and 
prose. In the ordinary language, 6 7rpeo6vTnc is the term for " an 
old man;" and, in the signification of "an ambassador " this same 
ordinary language employs TrpeoSevTric in the nom. sing. ; but in the 
plural only, irpeoSeie, dat. irpeoBeoiv. — The singular 6 irpeaBvc, in the 
signification of " the ambassador," occurs in the language of poetry, 
but only very seldom. The plural ol ttpeg6elc is met with occasion- 
ally in the earlier poetry, with the meaning of " the elders" as a term 
of honor, i. e., the leaders in a state, &c. — Hesiod (Scut. Here, 245) 
has 7rpio67]£c for 7Tpea6eic. 

(C.) In the Second and Third Declensions. 
As, to ddtepvov and to dd/cpv, " the tear." The latter is the earlier 
form, and remained in the language of poetry. The dative plural 
ddicpvciv, however, is found, also, in the earlier Attic prose writers. 



II. HETEROCLITES. 
Heteroclites have a double form, either of the same de- 
clension, namely, the third, or of different declensions. 
The Heteroclites of the third declension have already been 
given under the name of anomalous nouns. Those of dif- 
ferent declensions are as follows : 

(A.) First and Third Declensions. 
Many substantives in ne are inflected, either wholly or in part, 
after the first and third declensions. Thus, 

I. Through all the cases, according to both declensions, some in 



HETER0CLITE3 



319 



rjg, gen. ov and nrog ; as, 6 [Mvung, " mushroom, 11 gen. (ivkov and 
(ivKijToc : and some proper names ; as, Adprjg, Kofing, Mvvrjg, Hvhyg, 
and Xupyc. The name GaA?/f has, among the early Attics, in the 
genitive, along with Qdhnrog, the Ionic genitive-form Gd/Uw, dat. 
QakrjTL and GaA#, accus. QdAnra and GaA^v. 

II. All proper names in npuTyg, odevrjg, and tydvrjg, arising from 
composition, have, in the accusative singular, as well n as nv ; and 
along with these, the simple *Apng, 11 Mars." In all the other cases 
these words are inflected according to the third declension. Thus, 
2w/cpar7?c, gen. HuKparovg, dat. HoKpdrei, accus. ^oKodrrj (Plato) 
and ^(OKpdrvv (Xenophon). — AnfioGdevvg, accus. AnfioGdivy and An- 
fioadivriv. — 'ApiGToydvng , accus. 'ApLGToydvn and 'ApioT0§dv7]v. — 
"Apvg, gen. 'Apeog, dat. 'Apei, accus. "Apv and 'Apnv. (Epic, gen. 
'Apnoc, dat. 'Apn'i, accus.* A pn a.) The genitive "Apecog is also found, 
but the question as to its authenticity still remains undecided. 

Remark 1. The accusative in nlrjv, of proper names in Klfjc, 
as, 'Eteok?it}v, is only found in the later writers. — In the plural, 
the formation of compound proper names fluctuates ; as, KXblg- 
develc, and (more frequently) ' Apiarofydvai, and rove Honparac. — 
ZTpsipiddng, which belongs to the first declension, has, in Aris- 
tophanes, the vocative ^Tpeipladeg. 

Remark 2. In the Ionic dialect, nouns of the first declension 
in 77c have the accusative singular and plural commonly of the 
third, in sa and sag ; as, rbv deGTTOTea : rovg deanoTeag : from 
decrnoTTig, gen. deanorov. — So, MtArmdea, from Mi?>Tiddng, gen. 
M.i%TLadov. 

(B.) Second and Third Declensions. 

I. Many nouns in og are, as masculines, inflected after the second 
declension, and as neuters, after the third ; as, 6 oxog, " the wagon" 
gen. oxov : accus. 5%ov : and to oxog, gen. oxovg : accus. oxog. — 6 gko- 
rog, " the darkness" gen. gkotov : accus. gkotov : and to GKorog, gen. 
GKorovg : accus. onorog. — 6 cuvfyog, " the cup ;" gen. gkvQov : accus. 
Gfcvcpov: and to ctcvyog, gen. Gtcvfyovg : accus. GKV(pog. — So, also, 6 and 
to Taplxog, " preserved flesh ; 6 and to u<j>evog, " the riches ;" 6 and to 
fipdy^og, " the hoarseness." 

II. Several nouns are inflected according to both the contracted 
second declension, and the third declension ; as, y npoxoog, " the 
ewer" contracted irpoxovg , gen. npoxov, &c, and dat. plur. izpoxovGi, 
like povGt from (Sovg. — Oidinovg, gen. Oldcirodog and (poetic) Oidlrcov : 
dat. OISIttoSl : accus. OidliToda and OlSlttovv : voc. Oldlnov. In the 
Epic and lyric language We have a secondary form, as if from a 



120 



METAPLASTIC NOUNS. 



nominative Ol3i7r6Srje, namely, gen. Oidcn-odao (Doric, OlStiroSd ; 
Ionic, Olden-odea)) : dat. Oidurodrj : accus. QlStitfiSqV : voc. OidiTToSa. 

III. Several nouns are inflected according to the Attic second and 
the third declensions. To this class belong, 6 ye"ka>g, " the laughter," 
gen. yeTiuroc : dat. ye.Tiort : accus. yekura and yih&v. So, also, 7ra« 
rpoc, " a paternal uncle pqrpcjc, " a maternal uncle ;" and Mivue, 
u Minos ;" which three, in the genitive and accusative singular, are 
inflected as well according to the third declension, as the Attic sec- 
ond ; but, in the other cases, according to the third. Mlvoc. has also, 
u. the accusative, M^w. Thus, 



N. TT&TpUCi 

G. iTCLTpu and nd-p^oc, 
D. rrdrptjij 

A. ndrpcjv and ixdrpua. 



N. Mlvoc, 

G. Mlvg) and Mlvcjoc* 
D. Mlvcjt, 

A. Mlvg), MIvcjVj and Mivoa* 



III. METAPLASTIC NOUNS. 

Metaplastic nouns have, like the Heteroclites, a double 
formation, either in the same declension, or in different de- 
clensions. The Metaplastic nouns of the same declension 
have already been considered, under both the second de- 
clension (page 58, § 5) and the third. (Anomalous Nouns, 
page 107.) — The Metaplastic nouns of different declen- 
sions are as follows : 

(A.) Second and First Declensions. 

Kpowoe, gen. Kpolcrov, &c. ; and Ionic, as of the first declension, 
gen. Kpolaeo), &c. 

(B.) Second and Third Declensions. 
Aevdpov, To y " the tree" Gen. df.vdpov, &c , but in the dative plural, 
with the Attics, devtipecu, from to devdpoc, which occurs in Ionic. 
To this same devdpoe belongs the form devdpei. Homer always uses 
devdpeov, not devdpov, which last first occurs in Pindar. From dev- 
dpeov come the forms devdpea, devdpecjv. 
"Iktlvoc, 6, " the kite." Accus. Iktivov, and less frequently UrZva. 

Pausanias has Urtvec.. 
*Epwf, o, " love." Gen. epaToc, &c. A collateral form for the da- 
tive is epu (for epun), restored by Wolf to Od., xviii., 211. The 
later poets have also accus. epuv for epora. — The oldest, but, 
at the same time, a merely poetic, form of epoc is epog, only 
found, in Epic, in the nominative and accusative, ipoc and epov. 



METAPLASTIC NOUNS. 



121 



KXddog, 6, " the branch." Gen. aTiddov, &c. But we also find in 
the poets the collateral forms, dat. sing. uTiadi : accus. n7idda : 
dat. plur. fcXadect, KAadeeGoc : accus. plur. K/Adag, as if from a 
nominative k/mc. 

Kotvuvog, 6, " the partner." Gen. koivcovov, &c. Xenophon uses 
the forms ol jcotvfiveg and rove Kotvtivac, as from a nominative 

KOtVUV. 

Kptvov, to, "the lily." Gen. Kptvov, &c. In the plural we have 

the collateral forms Kp'ivea in Herodotus, and the dative plural 

upLveoL in Aristophanes and Cratinus. 
Adag, contracted ?£g, 6, "the stone." Gen. ?Mog, and in Sophocles 

(0. C, 196) ?mov, as if Mag were of the first declension : dat. 

?ml : accus. Adav, contr. ?idv, seldom Ada : plural, Adeg, Aden*, 

Aaecot. 

"Oveipov, to, " the dream." Gen. bveipov and bveipaTog, &c, the 
latter formed as a neuter (as if from a nom. bveipac) : plural, 
bveipaTa. 

UpogoTcov, to, " the countenance." Gen. irpoguiTov : poetic plural, 
Tzpog&TzaTa, for Tzpocoira : dat. Trpogdjiraru. It follows, in the 
plural, the analogy of bveipov, as if coming from a nom. sing. 
izpogcjTrag. 

ILvp, to, "the fire." Gen. nvpog, &c. In plural, of second de- 
clension, rd irvpa, dat. Tolg nvpolg. But rd Trvpd, thus formed, 
means "watch-fires." 

Tlog, 6, " the son." Gen. vlov, &c. Besides this mode of forming, 
there is another which follows the third declension, and is es- 
pecially used by the Attic writers, as if coming from a form 
vievg. Thus, 



Sing. N. (vievg), 
G. vieog, 
D. viel, 
A. visa, 
V. . 



Dual. N. vies, 
G. vieoiv, 
D. vieoiv, 
A. vies, 
V. viee. 



Plur. N. vielg, 
G. view, 

D. vUgl (later vievai), 
A. vieag and vielg, 
V. vielg. 



Remark 1. The genitive singular vieog, and the accusative 
singular viea and plural vieag, are rejected as not Attic, though 
these forms have crept into editions even of Thucydides and 
Plato. The dative plural vlevoi belongs to later prose. The 
pretended Attic nominative vog seems to be a mere invention 
of the grammarians. (Lobeck, ad Phryn., 40.) 

Remark 2. The genitive singular, and the whole plural of 
the formation just given, is more usual than the other, vlog y 
viov, &c. 

L 



122 



INDECLINABLE WORDS. 



Remark 3. The Epic language follows, in declining, two 

stems, or supposed nominative forms, namely, vlg and vievg. 
Thus, 

Singular. Dual. 

N. (vlg and vievg), N. vie, 

G. vlog " viiog, G. vloZv, 

D. vie " vleZ, D. vioZv, 

A. via " viea, A. vie, 

V. . V. vie. 



Plural. 
N. vleg, vleeg, and t^fff, 
G. vleuv, 
D. vldoi, 

A. t>Zaf and weaf, 

V. vZff, vleef, and vleZg. 



(C.) Jifr'c Second and Third Declensions. 

I. The three substantives, 37 #Aa>f, "/fo threshing-floor ;" 6 raug, 
" iAe peacock ; T1 and 6 Tvtyug, " /Ae whirlwind" have, along with their 
ordinary inflection according to the Attic second declension, an- 
other, also, according to the third, forming ovoc in the genitive ; as, 
rv(f)6g, gen. rvfytivog, &c. — The words ij aXioe and 6 rawg commonly 
follow the Attic second declension (thus, actus, sing, ukwv, rauv) : 
often, however, the forms aXoyvog, akuveg, ahuat, and rauvi, rauveg, 
ratio i, &c, are employed, for the sake of perspicuity. The noun 
rvtyuc usually follows the Attic second declension ; but from JEs- 
chylus downward, the oblique cases are frequently formed after the 
third declension, and in the plural probably always so. 

II. The old Epic language has many words which come immedi- 
ately from a verbal root, and occur in particular cases. Along with 
these, however, full collateral forms came, also, into general use. 
Thus, we have to du and to dfi/ua : to KpZ and tj KptBrj : to dl<j>i and 
u,7i(j>LTov : i] dug and dooig : ij apirat; and dprcayrj : to epi and epiov, &c. 

Some other forms appear, not in the nominative singular, indeed, 
but in individual cases ; as, judari and ndariv, for fidarlyi and fida- 
Tiya } from fidarc^, " a lash." — ttjv vi(pa, " the snow" (from a stem viip) : 
ain't, for dlny, from d%nrj : npona for KpoKnv, from KpoKn : avdpaKo- 
deautv for avSpairodoig, from dvdpdnodov, &c. 



INDECLINABLE WORDS. 
Indeclinables are those nouns which haye only one form to indi- 
cate case. Such are, 1. Some foreign words ; as, to, tov, tu ndoxa : 
6, 7ov, to) 'kSpadfi. — 2. The names of the letters ; as, to, tov, tu 
akya. — 3. Most of the cardinal numbers ; as, Sena dvdpuv. — 4. The 
neuter %peC*v : as, to, tov, t& xpz&v. — 5. The w r ord -&e/j.ig, when in 
combination with elvai or earl : as, <j>aal &eucg elvat : and, again, 
■B-iutg hcTt. — 6. Infinitives used as substantives ; as, to, tov, t& 
ypd(j>ei,v. 



ON THE FORMATION OF GREEK CASES. 123 



GENERAL REMARKS ON THE FORMATION OF GREEK 
CASES. 

1. Nominative Singular. 

I. The Third Declension is, beyond doubt, the oldest 
and most original form of inflection ; and from this, at a 
later period, the two other declensions were formed. 

II. When the three declensions separated from each 
other, the following division appears to have taken place, 
namely : all words whose stem ended in a consonant, or in 
the vowel I or v, were inflected after the third declension. 
Those, on the other hand, whose stem ended in d, were 
formed after the first declension ; and, finally, those whose 
stem ended in o, after the second. — Stems in e do not exist. 

III. It is highly probable that, in the earliest develop- 
ment of the language, all substantives had only one declen- 
sion-form for both genders ; and that those forms of inflec- 
tion which took the gender-signs a (rj), and ag (rjg), and og 
(namely, theirs/ and second declensions), were quite for- 
eign to substantives, and belonged only to adjectives. For 
the form of the first and second declensions is precisely 
the same with that which prevails in the case of adjectives 
of three genders ; and, moreover, in many substantives the 
adjectival signification is plainly apparent ; as, fcopog and 
Koprj, li a youth" and u a maiden;" so, deog and #ea, u a 
god" and " a goddess ;" dovXog and SovXrj, " a male slave" 
and " a female slave." 

2. Genitive Singular. 
The characteristic letter of the genitive singular is g, 
with an o preceding it ; or, in other words, og ; as, nopal;, 
gen. ttopan.og (in Sanscrit, s, sya, as, and as). — In the first 
declension, in the case of feminine nouns ending in a and rj, 
the vowels a and 77 blend with the termination og into ag, 
or rjg ; thus, ayopd, gen. ayopd-og — dyopdg : T£%vr\, gen. 
rexvrj-og =z rexvrjg. — In the second declension, as well as in 
masculines of the first, ending in ag and rjg, the g was 



124 ON THE FORMATION OF GREEK 

dropped from the ending og y and the o came in contact with 
the stem-vowel of the word, namely, a or 77, with which it 
became blended by contraction ; thus, Xoyog, gen. X6yo~og, 
Xoyo-o = Xoyov : veavlag, gen. veavta-og, vsavia-o == vsa~ 
vlov : reXcjvrjg, gen. reXuvrj-og, t£Xg)V7]-o == reXtivov. 

Remark 1. The Thessalian genitive of the second declension 
had an i before the ending ; as, Aoyoto, like quoius (i. e., cujus), 
illius, solius, istius, in Latin. In the Doric dialect, on the other 
hand, we find the g still remaining in the genitive of the pro- 
nouns ; as, e/liovc, e/zeoc, Ejuevg, Teog, Tevg, &c, for Eftio, hfiov, geo, 

GOV. 

Remark 2. The ending gio corresponds to the Sanscrit geni- 
tive-flexion sja (the Sanscrit a representing the Greek o), which 
masculines and neuters in as and am, whose stem ends in a, 
have ; thus, Aoyo-Gio, tekvo-glo — Aoyoio, tekvolo = Auyov, tek- 
vov : and, again, Bopsu-Gio, Bopsa-io, BopEd-o, Bopid. 

3. Dative Singular. 

The characteristic letter of the dative singular is t ; as, 
tcopait-i, dyopd-i — ayopa, Xoyo-t == Xoyo). So in the local 
adverbs in oi ; as, ILvdol, olkoi : and in the pronouns sfioc, 
col, ol, with which we may compare the old Latin form 
quoi, i. e., cui. In the common language, however, the o 
of the second declension was lengthened into G) ; as, Xoyco: 

Remark. The Greek language, in the dative-flexion of both 
the singular and plural, deviates entirely from the other lan- 
guages of the Indo-Germanic family. For in these the dative 
singular ends in a long vowel, in the Sanscrit in e (ae) and ai ; 
in the Latin in l. The Greek dative-form, therefore, corre- 
sponds rather to the Sanscrit locative-form, as well in the sin- 
gular (-t) as in the plural (sit, or -asu ; compare the Greek 
terminations gi, egi, lgl) ; thus, Sanscrit pat ; Latin pes ; Greek 
Trovg (gen. irod-oq) : Locative singular, pad, in pede, ttoS-c : 
Locative plural, patsu ; ttoS-gl, ttogl or ttoSegl. So, again, 
Sanscrit loc. sing., datri, Greek dorfjp-i : Sanscrit loc. plur., da- 
trisu, Greek dorijpai. The locative-form of the primitive lan- 
guage, therefore, became moulded, in the Greek tongue, into 
the dative-form, and the dative took, along with its own case- 
functions, those of the locative also. 



ON THE FORMATION OF GREEK CASESi 125 



4. Accusative Singular. 
The characteristic letter of the accusative singular is v ; 
as, (3ovv, ypavv, klv, Xiv, ttoXiv, 1%Q^v, dyopdv, te%vt\v, 
Xoyov. This v corresponds to the Latin, Sanscrit, and 
Zend m, in the accusative singular of those languages ; as, 
girt, " the mountain ;" accus. girim. As the Greek language 
did not tolerate a \l at the end of a word, the m-sound of 
the Latin, Sanscrit, and Zend became a v in Greek.— 
Again, when the stem ends in a consonant, the Sanscrit 
accusative has for its final syllable dm; as, mud, "joy;" 
accus. sing, muddm. In the Greek, however, for the rea- 
son just stated, this dm must become av ; and hence irarrfp, 
" a father" has for its true and original accusative-form 7ra- 
repav, corresponding to the Sanscrit p'tardm and the Latin 
patrem. But the final v eventually fell away, and the a 
alone remained as the case-sign of the accusative, which 
then became narepa. 

5. Vocative Singular. 

The vocative singular regularly is an imitation of the 
stem-form ; as, (3ov (j3of), dalfiov, rcdrep, unless the rules 
of euphony oppose. The first declension forms the voca- 
tive of feminines like the nominative. In the second de- 
clension, the vocative is either like the nominative, or else 
exhibits the stem-form, but in such a way that the fuller o 
is changed into the weaker e, the tone resting, in a great 
measure on the stem -syllable, or some other one near the 
beginning of the word. 

6. Nominative Plural. 

The characteristic of the nominative plural is ec, but this 
has only been preserved in the third declension ; as, #6- 
patc-sg. In the first and second declensions the c has fallen 
away, the e has changed to i, and this last has become 
blended with the stem-vowels, a and o, into at and ot re- 
spectively. The iEolians even marked this contraction in 

L2 



126 ON THE FORMATION OF GREEK CASES. 

the second declension by the accentuation ; as, (piXoootyoi, 
MeveXdoi, nuXovfievoi, tcaXovfievoi, &c, where the other 
dialects had (piX6oo<poi, Mevekaoi, ncoXovfievoi, KaXovfievoi. 

7. Genitive Plural. 
The characteristic of the genitive plural is uv ; as, ko- 
pdic-ov. This ending ojv was, in all likelihood, originally 
sog>v, just as we find erum for urn in early Latin ; as, lapi- 
dernm, regerum, for what was afterward lapidum, regum. — 
In the first and second declensions this ending in cjv be- 
came blended, with the stem-vowels a and o, into cjv ; as, 
Tifj,d*(*)v =. rifitiv ; Aoyo-wv =s Xoycov. The first declen- 
sion still shows the contraction by the accentuation ; and 
in the second declension, also, the Dorians (except Pindar) 
often circumflexed the ending of this same case ; as, ol/ctiv, 
GVfctiv, tovtgjv, from olttog, ovttov, ovtoc : where the other 
Greeks had olkgjv, ovkg)v, tovtg)v. 

8. Dative Plural. 
The characteristic of the dative plural is em(v), that is, 
the plural characteristic eg joined to the characteristic of 
the dative singular, t or iv ; as, PeXe-eaiv, kvv-eoiv, &c. 
So, the JEolians said a\i\i,eoiv for t]\leoiv, i. e., 7]\ilv. The 
Attics threw out the e before oiv, and formed (3eXeoi(v), 
Kvai(v), rjiilv, vfxlv. In the first and second declensions 
the s has passed over into an t, that is, eot{v) becomes 
lal(v), (Sanscrit ischu) ; as, -&vpx\oi(v), X6yoLOi(v). 

9. Accusative Plural. 
The characteristic of the accusative plural is vg or ag y 
that is, v or a (the characteristics of the accusative singu- 
lar) joined to c as the characteristic of the plural. But as 
v before c passes into a, the characteristic of the accusative 
plural becomes, in fact, only one, namely, ag ; thus, nom. 
sing. tcl-g, accus. plur. Ki-vg = Kiag : nom. ix^vg, accus. 
plur. l%0v-vg ixOv-ag. — In the first and second declen- 
sions the v fell out before g, as in the third ; but then the 



REMARKS ON THE HOMERIC SUFFIX <f>L OR (piV. 127 

preceding short vowel was lengthened, as a compensation ; 
thus, Te%vavg = rexvdg : Xoyovg =1 Xoyovg. — In the iEolo- 
Doric dialect, in order to compensate for the v, an i was 
inserted ; as, rexvaig, Xoyoig. 

10. Dual Number. 
The characteristic of the Dual is, in the nominative, ac- 
cusative, and vocative, an e, which, in the first and second 
declensions, is blended, along with the stem-vowels a and 
o, into a and g> respectively. In the genitive and dative 
the characteristic is tv. — In Sanscrit the characteristic is 
du, which, in the Veda-dialect, is frequently curtailed into 
a, and so, likewise, in the Zend, commonly into a or a. 
This a corresponds to the Greek e ; and, therefore, avdpe 
becomes in the Veda-dialect nar-d, and in the Zend lan- 
guage nar-a. The o in the termination oiv of the gen. and 
dat. of the third declension appears to be merely a connect- 
ing vowel. 



REMARKS ON THE HOMERIC SUFFIX <f)L OR <f>iv. 

I. In the Homeric language we find, along with the reg- 
ular case-signs, a small adverbial word, <f)t or <piv, which 
always attaches itself to a substantive, and may with pro- 
priety, therefore, be termed a Suffix. 

II. This surlix properly and originally had the meaning 
of " in a place" or " where" like the dativus localis, but 
was afterward used to express the other relations of the 
dative, namely, that of the dativus instrumental ; and, in 
connection with prepositions, it could even take upon itself 
the office of the genitive. 

III. It appears to have exercised in the early language 
precisely the function of the Latin ablative ; since it never, 
like the regular dative, indicated a personal object, and, 
therefore, was never added to names of persons ; but, like 
the Latin ablative, appeared either as local or instrumental ; 



128 REMARKS ON THE HOMERIC SUFFIX <pt OR <f>CV. 

and, consequently, also in connection with prepositions, 
which in the Latin language govern an ablative. Thus, 
'I/U60£ nXvrd TSix^a. " At Ilium" — Od., xii., 45, iroXvg 
d' dfKf) 7 oareocpLV dig avdptiv irvOojjLSVGyv. " And a large 
heap of men rotting upon bones" i. e., upon bones of others 
who had died before them. — boos, datcpvo^iv ixtyb-nXavro, 
" His eyes were filled with tears" Instrumental case. — 
vav(piv dfivveodai, " to ward off from the ships " The 
Latin a navibus, &c. 

Remark 1. We find this same suffix in the Sanscrit (namely, 
bhi, in the plural bhis) as an instrumental sign ; and also in the 
Latin ; except that in this latter language bh (the Greek </>) 
changes into b ; just as scribo corresponds to ypafyu ; orbus to 
6p(j)6g } &c. And this b becomes not only a mark of the locative, 
but also of the dative itself, in i-bi, u-bi, ali-bi, utri-bi, si-bi, ti-bi; 
and in the plural, no-bis, vo-bis. So, also, in the third declen- 
sion, in the ending i-bus. Thus, the Sanscrit mahi (for mabhi) 
answers to mihi, and tubhi to tiU. 

Remark 2. This suffix (j>i or <juv is never added to any other 
case except the dative and genitive. The examples commonly 
adduced of the accusative with this appendage are susceptible 
of a different explanation. Thus, in Hesiod (Op. et D., 410), 
find' avafyakXeodai ec r' avptov eot' Ivvnfyiv, we must regard evvn- 
(J)lv as taken adverbially ; like eicoizloo, kg rptc, &c. So, in 27., 
xiii., 307, km 6e^6(ptv rj £n' apioTepbfyiv, the preposition is here 
joined, not with the accusative, but the genitive. The example 
for the nominative, from Hesiod (Op. et D., 216), odoc d' ETepncpi 
irapeMetv, contradicts itself; kripvtyi is here " contrario modo." 
(Go tiling; ad loc.) 

IV. The suffix (f>t or <piv is found with substantives of all 
three declensions, and is always appended to the unchanged 
stem. 

First Declension. It is used here only in the singular. 
1. As a dative ; thus, ayekrjfa, u in a herd ;" ay hair}- (pi, 
" with beauty keens dvp-nfa, " he left at the gate ;" ap,* 
rjol (ficuvofievrjcpLv, " along with the dawn showing itself" 
i. e., together with the first dawn ; teefiahrjefu Xabslv, " to 
take by the head." — 2. As a genitive (Latin ablative), dno 



REMARKS ON THE LOCAL ENDINGS #L, fev, AND de. 129 

vevprjcbiv IdXketv, " to send forth from the string" (a nervo) ; 
evvrjtpi dopelv, "to leap from the couch" (e cubili). 

Remark. Some, in order to distinguish the dative here from 
the genitive, are accustomed to write the former with t sub- 
scribed, but without any good reason whatsoever, since <pt or 
(pt,v takes the place of the case-ending or flexion. 

Second Declension. It is used here in both the singular 
and plural. 1 . As a dative ; thus, Trap' avr6(pt, " with him ;" 
£tt' avrd(f>Lv, " upon him dafcpvocpcv, "with tears."' — 2. As 
a genitive : and naaoaX6(j)iv, "from a peg ;" etc novrocptv, 
"out of the deep;" an' 6are6<f)iv, "from the bones" 

Third Declension. It is used here only in the plural, and 
with a rather small number of neuter substantives in o<;, 
gen. eoc; ; and, besides these, with fcorvXrjdcjv and vavg : 
as, KOTvXr]6ov6(f)LV (with the connecting o) and vavcfti (like 
the Sanscrit ndu-Vis). In the case of those in oc, since <f)i 
or (j)LV is always added to the pure stem, the ending oc 
must go back to the original form eg. Hence we have 
6%eo(pi, tear' opeafa, and orrjOeofav. — Once in the Iliad (x., 
156), vnb Kpdreofyi, "under the head" occurs, as if from a 
stem icpdrog, in place of apdg. — A peculiar form is 'Ep£- 
6evo(ptv [II., ix., 568). But here, perhaps, the ignorance 
of transcribers has excluded the true form, e% 'Epedeacpi. — 
Since the stem of nouns in oc, gen. eog, ended originally in 
eg, and since the g belongs to this stem, we must be care- 
ful not to regard it, as some do, as a mere letter inserted in 
the form. 



REMARKS ON THE LOCAL ENDINGS &i, &ev, AND de. 

I. With the use of the suffix (f)i or <pcv is closely con- 
nected that of the local endings tit, $ev, and de, which, in 
the Epic language, frequently supply the place of the case- 
inflexion, namely, #t that of the dative ; dev that of the 
genitive ; and de that of the accusative ; but which at a 
later period were employed merely as terminations- to de- 



130 



PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 



note respectively, u in a place" "from a place" and " to a 
place" For a nearer designation of the meaning, how- 
ever, in the Epic writers, the prepositions are sometimes 
added. 

II. The suffixes $i and #ev were appended, in the third 
declension, to the pure stem. When, however, the stem 
ended in a consonant, a euphonic o was made to intervene 
between the stem and the suffix. — The suffix de, however, 
was appended always to the accusative form. Thus, we 
have oikoOl, " at home ;" tjojOl, " in the morning ;" oltcodev, 
"from home;" rcdrpoSev, "from a father ;" olicovde, "home- 
ward;" aXade, "to the sea;" tyvyade, " to flight " &c. 

III. In 'A'idoode the de is appended to the genitive, be- 
cause the accusative ddfiov is left out. — As these suffixes, 
moreover, supply the place of the case-endings, we some- 
times find an adjective added to the substantive to which 
they are appended ; as, Kocovd' evvaio\ievt]v (II. , xiv., 255) ; 
and in the often-recurring ovde 86\iov5e, " to his own home" 
the suffix is even repeated with the adjective. 



V. PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 

I. Patronymics are nouns which designate a son or a 
daughter. 

II. They are derived from the proper name of the father ; 
sometimes, also, from that of the mother. 

III. Masculine Patronymics are of two classes. The 
first class end in either tdrjg, dSr]g 9 or ladrjg, and form the 
genitive in ov. The second end in io>v, and make the 
genitive in wvoc, rarely ovog. 

IV. Patronymics in ldr\$ and tov are formed from nouns 
in oc of the second declension. Thus, from Kpovoc, " Sat. 
urn" come the patronymics Kpovidrjg and Kpoviow, both 
meaning " the son of Saturn" u e., Jupiter. So, from K6- 
dpog we have KoSpldrjg : from TdvraXog, TavTaXidrjg : from 
Alatcog, AlatclSng, &c. 



PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 



131 



V. Patronymics in tddrjg are formed from nouns in tog ; 
thus, from f/ H/Uoc comes 'Rkiddrjg : from 'AotcXrjiuog, 'Acr- 
KXrjmdSrjg : from Aaepnog, Aaeprtddrjg. 

VI. Patronymics in ddrjg come from nouns in 7]g and ac 
of the first declension. Thus, from 'iTTnorTjg comes 'Itttto- 
rddrjg : from 'A/Uvac, 'AXevddr]g. 

VII. In nouns of the third declension the genitive serves 
as the basis of formation. If the penult of the genitive be 
short, the patronymic from og ends in Idrjg ; as, from 'Aya- 
(j,e(ivG)v, gen. -ovog, comes ' Ay afxefjLVovLdrjg : from Qeoroyp, 
gen. -opog, QeoTopidrjg : from Atjtg), gen. -oog, ArjToidrjg. 
But if the penult of the genitive be long, the patronymic 
ends in iddrjg ; as, from TeXafi&v, gen. -ojvog, comes Te- 
\a\Ux>viddr\g : from 'AfMpirpvov, gen. —ovog, A^trpvG)- 
viddrjg. 

VIII. Nouns in evg, which in Ionic have the genitive in 
-770c, give rise to the patronymic rfiddrig. Thus, from 
UrjXevg, gen. -770c, comes UrjXrj'tddrjg : from Uepoevg, gen. 
-rjog, nepGTjiddrjg. But, since these have also the termi- 
nation EG)g in the genitive, which continued to be the pre- 
vailing one in the Attic and common dialects, hence arose, 
from Hepoevg, gen. UepG£G)g, the other patronymic form 
Uepaeidrjg: from 'Arpevg, gen. 'Arpewc, the form 'Arpei- 
6*770, &c. 

IX. Female Patronymics h&vefour terminations, name- 
ly, either Lag, or eg, or tvrj, or tuvrj. Thus, from A77™ 
come A7jTG)'idg, " daughter of Latona" i. e., Diana, and also 
A7)TG)ig: from Nqpevg, gen. ~rjog, 'Nrjprjtg: from 'ArAac, 
gen. -avrog, 'ArXavrtg : from "Adprjcrog, f Adpr]ariv7] : 
from 'A/cpiotog, 'Anpioi&vr]. 

X. It is to be observed that the termination ivr\ arises 
when the primitive has a consonant before its own termi- 
nation, and the ending kdvtj when the primitive has before 
its termination the vowel 1 or v. 

Remark 1. 'ATineidric, "son of Alcaus" comes, not from 'AA- 
kgZos, but from the form AIkev^ mentioned by Eustathius {ad 



132 



PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 



m p. 128, 37). Pindar has 'ATinaidng, from 'ATiftdog, or as Met' 
patting from Uelpaiog. (Pind., 01, vi., 115,— II., iv., 228.) But 
*0'L?iiad7}£ implies a form 'Oiliog. 

Remark 2. The origin of the different forms -Idng and -iddng 
was probably in the cultivation of the Greek language by means 
of the hexameter verse, since neither QearopiuSng, nor Qveora- 
drjg, nor TehapLuvtdrjg could enter into that measure. (Eustath., 
ad II., p. 13, 10, 31.) On the other hand, the iambic verse, to 
which the Attic ear became so familiar, made other forms ne- 
cessary at a later period. Thus, from XalKuduv Homer has 
Xalnudovr eating, while in Euripides {Ion, 59) we find XaTiKotiov- 
rldai. So, the Attics said Alavrlting, 'AoKTinnitiaL, &c. (Soph., 
Phil, 1333.) 

Remark 3. The forms -idng, -wviting, and -tuvidting are often 
interchanged. Instead, for example, of 'laizerLting, from 'lane- 
rog, we find 'laireTiovlting in Hesiod (Op. et D., 54). Instead 
of 'Avdspuovidtirjg, from 'Avdeplcov, we have, in Homer, 'AvdepU 
ting. (11, iv.,488, &c.) 

Remark 4. A Doric form of patronymics was -uvtiag ; as, 
'Eirapivtjvtiag, Xapuvtiag, Kpecovtiag. (Schol. ad Theoc, xvi., 39.) 

Remark 5. Instead of patronymics, the poets often employ 
adjectival forms. Thus, 'Nearcop Nn/irjiog (II., x., 18) : Kpoviog 
TloGEid&v (Pind., 01., vi., 49) : 6 Qearopeiog fiavrig (Soph., Aj., 
801). This remained the usual mode of expression among the 
Boeotians, who formed adjectives in -stog and -tog out of proper 
names, and used these adjectives as patronymics : thus, f Ep- 
plag ALO(f>uv£Log (Bockh, Inscr., n., 1577) : Xapiaavtipog EevoKpd- 
Twg (Id. ih., n., 1574, 30.— Consult the remarks of Bockh, p. 758). 

Remark 6. A kind of patronymics are the names of the young 
of animals in -ttievg ; as, dntiovctievg, " a young nightingale 
TwKitievg, " a wolf's ichelp," &c. 

Remark 7. Some names have the form only of patronymics, 
without the signification ; as, MiT^ndting, 'ApLGretting, Evptntting, 
Ztpctviting. 1 Patronymics are often, also, interchanged with 
their primitives. Thus, sometimes 'AXe^avtipiting for 'AXrtjav- 
dpog : 'Ap(j)LTpvG)v for 'Afujurpvovidting, &c. To this same head 
may be referred "YTceptuv for 'Trceptoviting. 

1. And yet we must suppose that even such names as these were 
originally patronymics, or else that some such analogy was followed 
in forming them. The name Ebpimting has reference to the poet's 
birthplace, the island of Salamis, and the famous strait or Euripus 
in which the battle was fought between the Greeks and Persians 
on his natal day. (Anthol., v., 4. — Barnes, Vit. Eurip.) 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 



133 



VI. ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

I. Adjectives in Greek may be divided into three class- 
es, according to the number of their terminations. 

II. Adjectives of the First Class have three termina- 
tions, one for each gender ; as, tfaAdc, " handsome" which 
has in the masculine aaX-og, in the feminine naX-r} y m the 
neuter aaX-ov. — The adjectives of this class are the most 
numerous. 

III. Adjectives of the Second Class have two termi- 
nations, one for both masculine and feminine, and one for 
the neuter ; as, evdo^og, " illustrious " which has in the 
masculine evdogog, in the feminine evdogog also ; but, in the 
neuter, evdo^ov. 

IV. Adjectives of the Third Class have but one termi- 
nation ; and by this they commonly indicate either the 
masculine or the feminine ; seldom, however, the neuter ; 
as, cpvydg, "fugitive" which we can join, for example, with 
either avrjp in' the masculine, or yvvrj in the feminine. 

V. Participles all fall under the first of these classes, 
having a separate termination for each gender ; as, tvttt- 
o)v, masculine ; rvirr-ovoa^ feminine ; tvttt-ov, neuter. 
And, again, rvifxig, masculine ; Tvip-aca, feminine ; rv^p-av, 
neuter. 

VI. The declension of adjectives and participles differs 
very little from that of substantives. With the participles, 
however, it is to be observed that the vocative masculine 
of the third declension is always the same in form as the 
nominative. 

VII. Adjectives of three terminations inflect the feminine 
according to the first declension ; and the masculine in og , 
and the neuter in ov, according to the second. The other 
adjectives of three terminations, whose masculine and neu- 
ter end not in og and ov, follow, in these genders, the third 
declension. 

M 



134 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 



VIII. Adjectives of two terminations, whose masculine 
and feminine end in og or e*>c, follow the second declension ; 
all others the third. — Adjectives of one termination follow 
almost all the third declension. 



I. ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



L Adjectives of three terminations are the most numer- 
ous, and have the feminine always in ?/, except when pre- 
ceded by a vowel, or the letter p, in which cases it ends in 
a. Thus, 



But, 

<j)iXt-og y 
ayi-og, 



ftaX-rf, 
deiX-rj, 

<piXi-a, 
lep.a, 



KaX-6v 9 
detX-6v, 

GO(j)-6v, 

tptXcoVi 

ayt-ov, 

lep.ov. 



" handsome" 
" cowardly." 
" wise" 

"friendly." 
" holy." 
" sacred." 



II. Adjectives in oo£, however, have the feminine in 7] ; 
as, bydo-oc, dydo-7] : #o-6c, #0-77. But when p precedes, 
these also have a ; as, adpo-og, ddpo-a. 

PARADIGMS. 
(1.) Termination in of, ?y, ov, and oc, a, ov. 

GO(p6g, " wise." 



Singular. 
N. go^-6^ -4 
G. go$-ov, -ij^, 

A. GO<p-OV, -TjV, 

V. oo^M, 



Singular. 
N. $lXl-o<;, -a, 
G. ^lVl-ov, -df, 
D. <j)iXi'<f>, 
A. (j>L?n-ov, -av, 
V. <j>l?u-e, -a, 



-ov, 

-dv, 
-6V. 



-ov, 
-ov, 

-ov, 
-ov. 



Dual 

N. go$-6, -a, -w, 

G. oo<p-oiv, -alv, -olv, 

D. go<J>-oiv, -a.lv, -olv, 

A. oo(p-w, -a, -6, 

V. go<J>-6, -a, -<5. 



Plural. 
N. GO(p-ot, -at, 
G. go$~£)v, -&v, 
D. GO(p-oic, *atq, 
A. O"o0-ovf, -af, 
V. go^-ol, -ai. 



-a, 

-wy, 

-o?f, 

-a, 

-a. 



<plXiog, "friendly" 

Dual. 
N. (j>i7ii-o), -a, -w, 
G. §ik'i-0Lv, -aiv, -olv, 

D. (j>l%L-OLV, -o.lv, -olv, 
A. -a, -w, 

V. <j>iAL-G)y -a, -u. 





Plural. 




N. 


<f>L?LL-Ol, -at, 
<jtL?lL-CJV, -CJV, 


-a. 


G. 


-(OV, 


D. 


<pL?LL-OLS, -adf, 


-OLC, 


A. 


(frf^i-ovf, -of, 


-a, 




flhi-oti -aiy 


-a. 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 



135 



/epdc, " sacred" 



N. iep-Sfr 
G. iep-QV) 
D. iep-w, 

V. lep-e, 




-ov, 
-ov, 

-<5v. 



N. £ep-G3, -a, -w, 

G. Up-oiv, -aiv, -olv, 

D. iep-otv, *atv, -olv, 

A. iep-6) -a, -a>, 

V. Jep-w, -a, -(5. 



Dual. 



N. lep-oi, -at, -a, 

G. Up-&V) -£)v, -up, 

D. lep-olc, -aif, -o?f, 

A. iep-ovC) -af, -a, 

V. *ep-o*, -a/, 



Plural 



(2.) Termination in doc. 



I. Adjectives in doc are contracted throughout. In the 
feminine, however, as already remarked, otj is contracted 
into rj ; as, anX-orj, anX-rj : but, in the neuter plural, 6a is 
contracted into a ; as, anX-oa, airX-a. 

II. When, however, the letter p precedes ooc, the femi- 
nine is in da, not 6r\ ; as, d6p-6og, " crowded" fern. aOp.oa* 
But it must, at the same time, be borne in mind that this 
adjective, ddp-6og, dOp-oa, dOp-oov, is not contracted, prob- 
ably in order to distinguish it from aOpovg, adpovv, " noise- 



III. The adjective diKp-oog, ducp-oa, Suip-oov, "forked" 
is commonly contracted in the masculine and neuter ; but 
in the feminine remains more usually in the open form ; 
as, i\ Snip-da. — The adjective dyd-oog, 6y3.07], dyd-6ov 9 
" eighth," is never contracted. 



less. 



anXooe, contracted dnXovg , " simple" 



Singular. 



N. 




s 

1 

} 



G. 



artX-oov, ) -07/c, ) .dov, 

ov, ] 7?C, $ ov, 



D. 



A. 



V. 




186 ADJECTIVES, ETC.. OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



N. airX-OG), i 

G), S 

G. anX-ooLV, f 
olv, $ 
drcX-ootv, 

olv, 

arcX-oG), 
w, 

anX-oG), 
3, 



i 

iv, ) 

5 

oaiv, ) 
alv, ) 



N. dnX-oot, 
ol, 

G. anX.oojv, 

G)V, 
D. a7T/l-6o£C, 

o£c, 
A. anX-oovg, 
ovg, 

V. anX-ooi, 
ol, 



Dual. 
>6d, 
a, 

-oatv, 
alv, 

-oaiv, 
alv, 

-6a, 
a, 

-6a, 
a, 

Plural. 
-6ai, 
at, 

~6g)v, 
g>v, 

-oaig, 
alg, 

-oag, 
ag, 

-oat, 
at. 



\ 1 1 



wig, ) 

■6ag, > 

dg, S 

5at, ) 

ii, S 



-00), 

G), 
-00LV, 

olv, 

-00LV, 

olv, 

-06), 
G), 

-6(0, 

G). 

-6a, 
a, 

-6g)v, 

GJV, 

~6oig, 
olg, 

-6a, 
a, 

-6a, 
a. 



(3.) Termination in eog. 

I. Adjectives in eog are contracted throughout. In the. 
feminine ea is contracted into a, when a vowel or the letter 
p precedes the termination eog ; but otherwise it is con- 
tracted into rj. 

II. In the neuter plural, however, ea is always contract- 
ed into a, whatever letter may precede eog. Thus, 

dpyvpeog, contracted dpyvpovg, " of silver" 
Singular, 
-ea, 
a, 



N 



apyvp-eog, 
ovg, 
G. dpyvp-eov, 
ov, 

D. dpyvp-eG), 



i -eov, > 

S ovv, > 



-eag, 
ag, 
-ea, 



-eov, 
ov, 
-eco, 



ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 137 



A. dpyvp-Eov, 



-toy, } 

OVV, ) 



V. dpyvp-EE, ) 
(Doubtful), ^ 

N. apyvp-EG), ? 

G), I 

G. apyvp-eoiv, ) 
blv, S 

D. apyvp-eoiv, 
olv, 

A. apyvp-eo), 

6>, 

V. apyvp-EG), 
€), 

N. dpyvp-Eoi, ^ 
ol, \> 
G. apyvp-EG)v, ) 

G)V, $ 

D. dpyvp-ioig, ) 
dig, S 

A. dpyvp-iovg, 
ovg, 

V. dpyvp-Eoi, 
ol. 



ovg, > 
w& S 
m, l 



-Eav, 
dv, 

-ia, 
a, 

Dual. 
-Ed, 
a, 

-Eaiv, 
alv, 

-iaiv, 
alv, 

-Ed, 

a, 
-id, 

a, 

Plural 
-Eai, 
al, 

-EG)V, 

gjv, 
-iaig, 

alg, 
-sag, 

dg, 
-Eat, 

al, 



> ovv, S 



EOV, 
OVV, 
EOV, 
OVV* 



-EG), ) 

G), $ 

-EOIV, ? 

olv, I 

-EOLV, ) 

olv, $ 

.£6), / 

G), $ 

.EG), / 

G). $ 

•Ea, ) 

a, \ 

-EG)V, ) 

G)V, I 

•Eotg, ) 

olg, \ 

-Ea, ) 

a, $ 

•Ea, ) 

a. S 



XpvoEog, contracted xP va °vg, "golden." 



N 



Xpvo.Eog, 
ovg, 

G. XpVO-EOV, 

ov, 

D. XpVO-EG), 
A. XpVO EOV, 

ovv, 

V. xpvO'££i I 
btful), S 



(DoubtfiL 



Singular. 
.E7J, 

-ETfg, 

-E7JV, 
TjV, 

.ETj, 

M 2 



•EOV, 

ovv, 

-EOV, 

ov, 

-EG), 
• EOV, 

ovv, 

-EOV, 
OVV. 



138 ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIOFS, 







Dual. 




N. 




a, ) 






g), s 


a, S 




G. 


Xpva-eoLV, ) 


-eaiv, ) 


-6olv, 




OLV, ) 


alv, S 


OLV, 


D. 


%pVO-£0lV, ) 


-eatv, ) 


-eotv, 






alv, S 


OLV, 


A. 




-ea, ) 






6), > 


a, S 


G), 


V. 


Xpv<j-e(o, ) 


-ea, ) 


-EG), 




G), S 


a, ) 


G). 



Plural. 



N. 


XpVO'EOt, ) 


-eat, ) 


.ea, 




ol j S 


at, ) 


a, 


G. 


XpVO-EGJV, ) 


-£G)V, ) 


-EG)V, 




G)V, S 


G)V, ) 


GJV, 


D. 


Xpvo-eoLe, ) 


-eaLe, ) 


-eoig, 




OLC y S 


ale;, ) 


OLC, 


A. 


XpvG-eovq., ) 


Jag, ) 


-ea, 




ovc, S 


dc, S 


a, 


V. 


Xpvo-eoi, ) 


-eat, ) 


-ea, 




OL, S 


cu, S 


a. 



Remark 1. Instead of tcepdfieoc, contracted Kepafiov^ and 
Xvrpeog, contracted x VT P°vc> tne forms Kepapeovc and x vr P £ °vc 
most commonly appear, making, in the plural, Kepafiea, ^vrpea, 
&c, just as we have <j>oivLKtov<;, hovv, instead of $QLvuce#c, -eov, 
contracted yoivLKovg, -ovv. 

Remark 2. Adjectives in eoc, which are proparoxytoned in 
their open form, receive, after contraction, a circumflex on 
their final syllable. The declensions of apyvpeog and xpvaeog 
will furnish illustrations of this rule. 

(4.) Termination in vg. 
L Adjectives in vg make the feminine in ela and the 

neuter in v. 

IL The declension of the masculine follows that of tttj. 
Xyc (page 97), but with the genitive singular ending in 
Eoe. The declension of the neuter follows that of aarv 
(page 97), but has always in the plural the open form ea. 



ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 139 



III. These adjectives contract el into el, and eeg and eag 
into elg. 

IV. Participles in vg make the feminine in voa and 
the neuter in vv. 



yXvuvg, yXvfcela, yXv/cv, " sweet" 
Singular. 

-ela, 
-eidg, 
-eta, 



'V, 

-eog, 

-el, I 

el,S 
-v. 



N. yXvu-vg, 
G. yXvK-eog, 
D. yXvK-ei, ) 
el, S 

A. yAiw-vv, -elav, 

N. yXvK-ee, -eta, -ee, 

G. yXv/c-eotv, -eiaiv, -eoiv, 

D. yXvu-eoiv, -eiaiv, -eoiv, 

A. yXvtc-ee, -eld, -ee, 

V. yXvtc-ee, -eld, -ee. 

Plural. 

N. yXvK-eeg, ) -elai, -ea, 

elg, S 

G. yXvtc-eojv, -ei&v, -eo)v, 

D. yXvtt-eoi(y), -eiaig, -eoi(y), 

A. yXvK-eag, ) -efdf, -ea, 

V. yXvit-eeg, ) -e«M, -ea. 

eZc, J 

£evyi>i;c, ^evyvvja, fevyvvv, "joining" 
Singular. 

-voa, -vv, 

-vorjg, -vvrog, 

-V01Q, -VVTl, 

-voav, -vv, 

-voa, -vv. 
Dual. 

-voa, -vvre, 

-voaiv, -vvroiv, 

-voaiv, -vvroiv, 

-vod, -vvre, 

-voa, -VVT6. 



N. &vyV'Vg, 
G. ^evyv-vvrog, 
D. ^evyv-vvri, 
A. ^evyv-vvra, 
V. ^evyv-vg, 



N. ^evyv-vvre, 

G. %evyv-vvroiv, 

D. £evyv-vvToiv, 

A. £evyi>-i;x>Te, 

V. ^evyv-vvre, 



140 ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS* 



Plural. 

N. %evyv-vvreg, -voai, ~vvra, 

G. £evyv-vvr(*)v, -votiv, -vvtgjv, 

D. %evyV'VOi(y)) -voaig, -vat(v), 

A. c^evyv-vvrag, -voag, -vvra, 

V. £evyv~vvreg, -vocu, -vvra. 



Remark 1. The genitive in tug, of adjectives in vg, eta, v, be- 
longs to the later language. 

Remark 2. The adjective yfitavg has, with the Attics, in the 
accusative plural, as well the contracted as the open form, 
namely, both ipioetc and ijfiiaeag. Even the neuter rjp.LO£a oc- 
curs in Theophrastus ( Charact., ii.) ; while in Demosthenes, on 
the other hand, in many places, the best MS. of Bekker's gives 
rju'Lor}. Whether this adjective, moreover, was used by the an- 
cient writers as one merely of two terminations, remains at 
the present day undecided. Thucydides, indeed, has rag Tijucaeag 
rfiv veCov, but with another reading qfiioeCac (viii., 8) ; and again, 
7]fj,LG£og qfitpag, (iv., 104), where, however, ^fxiGeog may be re- 
garded as the genitive of the neuter ruiiav, used substantively. 
With later writers, the contracted form rjiiiaovg appears. 

Remark 3. In the Epic language, the feminine form eta, in 
the genitive and dative, takes 7j in the place of a ; as, y'kvKe'nig, 
ylvKeirf. This same language has also, in a few adjectives, in 
place of the feminine form eta, the shortened one, 6a or ir\ ; as, 
Padiqc, &7}?Ms y cjkf.cc. The Ionic dialect has the same pecu- 
liarity. 

Remark 4. In the Epic and Doric poetic language, some ad- 
jectives in vg were employed as common, or of two terminations. 
Thus (//., xix., 97), "Hpi] -^rjlvg kovca: (Od. f v., 467), -^jjXvg 
kiparj : (Od., xii., 369), jjdvg avr/Ltrj : (7/., X., 27), novXvv k<j)' vy- 
prjv : (Thcocrit., xx., 8), ddea (for ydvv) x a ^ Tav '> & c - 

(5.) Termination in eig. 

I. Adjectives in etg make the feminine in eaaa and the 
neuter in ev ; as, xapieig, %apieoGa, X a P iev > " comely" 

II. Participles in eig make the feminine in eloa and 
the neuter in ev ; as, rvcpBetg, rvcpdetaa, rvcpdev. 

%apL£ig, x a P i8GGa i X a P iev i " comely" 
Singular, 

N. %api-eig, -eoo.a, -ev, 

G. xpapl-evTog, -e<ior\g, -evrog, 



ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 141 



D. x a P L ~ eVTt i -evri, 

A. x a PL~ £VTCl i -eo<jav } -ev, 

V. x a P L ' ev > -eooa, -ev. 

Dual. 

N. X a P L ~ EVTE i 'EOGCL, -EVTE, 

G. x a P c " EVT0LV i -eoaatv, -evtoiv, 

D. x a P l ~ EVTOlv i -eoaaiv, evtoiv, 

A. x a P L " EVTE '> ~£GOd, -evte, 

V. x a P l ~ EVTE "i -eoad, -evte. 

Plural. 

N. x a P l ~ EVTE $-> -saaat, -evra, 

G. X a P L ' EVTG)V i -EOGGJV, -EVTCOV, 

D. x a P L ' EOi { v )i -eooaig, -e<jl{v), 

A. x a PL mEVra £i -eocdg, -evra, 

V. x a P l - EVTE S-> -eoaai, -evra. 

Tvcfrdelg, Tvcpdeloa, rvcfrdsv, " struck" 
Singular. 

N. rvcpd-Eic,, .eloa, -ev, 

G. Tvcpd-evroc;, ~ei07jg, -evrog, 

D. ~V(f)d-FVTl, -ELOXl, -EVTl, 

A. rv^d-Evra^ -Eioav, -£v, 

V. TV<pd-ELg, -£loa, -ev. 

Dual. 

N. rvcpd-evre, -etad, -evte, 

G. rvcpd-evTOtv, .eioaiv, -evtolv, 

D. rvcpd-evTOiv, .Eioaiv, .evtoiv, 

A. TVCpd-EVTE, -ECGd, -EVTE, 

V. TV(f)d-£VT£, -ElOd, -EVTE. 

Plural. 

N. rv(p6-£VTEg, .£L<jai, -Evra, 

G. TV(j)0-EVTG)V, -ELOCJV, -EVTG)V, 

D. TV(pd-£L(U(v), -docug, .e2ol(v), 

A. TV<pO-£vrac, -Eiodg, -evto,, 

V. TV(pd-EVT£g, .ElGat,, -EVTCL. 



Remark I: The grammarians doubted whether the dative 
plural were %apUiGi, or %apUai, or x a P' L£aai "> a sufficient proof 
that this form no where, in reality, occurred. (Chozrob. in Belc- 
her, Anecd., p. 1193.) 

Remark 2. Most of the adjectives of. this termination have 
in, the penult the vowels o, or w ; as, ripr/eic, alfiaroeic, an- 



142 ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



rung. Even x a P lH S * s sa ^ to nave c° m e from x a P tT ^ ec C 
(Etym. Mag., p. 34.)— It will be convenient, however, to con- 
sider these terminations separately. 

(6.) Termination in -rjEig. 
Adjectives in -rjEig undergo contraction throughout. 
Thus, -rjsig, .tjeggo,, -rjev, become -rjg, -rjGGa, -rjv, and so of 
the other parts. 

Tifi-rjEig, contracted t^c, &c, "valued" 



N. Tlfl-TJEig, 

G. Tifi-rjevrog, 

Tlfl-TJVTOq, 
D. Tlfl-TJEVTl, 
Tlfl-TJVTl, 

A. Tifi-TjEVTa, 
TLfi.rjvra, 

V. Tifi.rjEV, 
TifX-rjv, 



N. Tlfl 

Tlfl 
G. Tlfl 

Tlfl' 
D. Tlfl 

Tlfl- 
A. Tlfl- 

Tlfl. 

V. Tlfl 
Tlfl 

N, 



-TJEVTE, 

-tjvte, 
-tjevtoiv, 

TJVTOIV, 

tjevtoiv, 

TJVTOIV, 

TJEVTE, 

TJVTE, 

TJEVTE, 

TJVTE, 



Tifi-TjevTeg, 
Tifi-rji'Teg, 

G. Tlfl'TJEVTCJV, 
Tlfl-TJVTCOV, 

Tifi-rjeoi(v), 

Tlfl-TJGl(v), 



Singular. 
-tjeggo,, 
-rjooa, 
.rjEGGTjg, 

-tjeggtj, 

-tjeoociv 
.rjooav, 



•TJEGGO,, > 
-TJGGa, ) 

Dual. 



D 



-rjEGOaiv, ) 
•tjoocliv, > 
-tjegguiv, ) 
-tjogcliv, s 

-TJEOOd, 

-Tjood, 

.TJEGOd, 

.rjGGd, 
Plural. 
-rjEGQai, 

-TjGGai, 
-TJEGGG)V, ) 
-TJGO(a)V, ) 

-rjEOGaig, ) 

-TjGGaig, ) 



-TJEV, 

-rjv, 

-rjevTos, 

-TJVTOg, 
-TJEVTl, 
-tjVTl, 
• TJEV, 
-TJV, 

-TJV. 



-TJEGGd, ) *TJEVTE, ) 

-TJOOd, S -TJVTE, ) 



*TJEVTOlV, ) 
-TJVTOIV, ) 
-TJEVTOIV, ) 
•TJVTOIV, $ 
-TJEVTE, > 
-TJVTE, ) 
-TJEVTE, ) 
-TJVTE. ( 



-rjEVTa, 

•TJVTCL 
• TJEVTOV 

•tjvtcjv, 

•TJEGl(v), 
-fjGl(v), 



ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 143 



A. rifi-Tjevrag, 
Ti[i-rjVTag, 

V. Tifx-rjEVTEg, 
ti\l.i\vte<;, 



-rjEOoag 
-rjoodg, 

-rjooai, ) 



•rjevra, ) 

-Tjevra, I 
.fjVTa, ) 



Remark. The Dorians contract -jjetg, -rjecaa, -fjev into 
daca, av, &c. ; as, kvigg&vti, Pind., Isthm., iv., 112: aly/Mvra, 
Id., Pyth , ii., 19, &c. 

(7.) Termination in -oeig. 
Adjectives in -oscg are contracted throughout. Thus, 
-6e*c, -OEOoa, -oev, become -ovg, -ovooa, -ovv. 

fieXiT-oeig, contracted neXirovg, r< made of honey" 
Singular. 
-oEOoa, 
-ovooa. 



N. \ieXit-6eh;, 
\iEXvr-ovg, 
G. [teXiT-oevTog, 

\LtklT-OVVTO<;, 

D. \leXit-6evti, 
fieXir-ovvTi, 

A. fieXiT-oevra, 
fieXir-ovvra, 

V. \ieXit-6ev, 
\leXvt-ovv, 

N. \leXit-6evte, 
\leXit-ovvte, 

G. \JLeXiT-OEVTOIV, 
\LeXiT-OVVTOIV, 

D. \ieXit-oevtoiv , 

\LeXit~OVVTOIV, 

A. \ieXlt-6evte, 
fieXiT-ovvre, 

V. \ieXvt-6evte, 
f-ieXir-ovvre, 

N. fieXiT-oevTeg, 
fieXir-ovvreg, 

G. {IeXiT^OEVTUV, 

fieXiT-ovvTcov, 



h \ 



-OEOorjg, ) 

-ovoorjg, S 

-oeooyjj ) 

9 ) 



-ovooxj, 
-OEOoav. 
-ovooav 
-OEOoa, 
-ovooa, 
Dual, 
-oiood, 
-ovooa, 

-OEOOCUV, 

-ovooaiv, 
-oiooaiv 
-ovooatv, 
-oiood 
-ovooa 
-oiood 
-ovooa 
Plural. 
-oEOoai 
-ovooai 

-OEOOUV, 

-ovootiv, 



i 

I: I 

•I 
\ 



-OEV, 
-OVV, 



-OEVTOg, 

-ovvTog, 

-OEVTl, 

-OVVTL, 

-OEV, 

-OVV, 

-OEV, 

-OVV. 

-OEVTE, 
-OVVTE, 
-OEVTOIV^ 
-OVVTOtV : 
-OEVTOIV, 
-OVVTOLV, 
-OEVTE, 
-OVVTE, 
-OEVTE, 
-OVVTE. 

-OEVTa, 

-ovvTa, 

-OEVT(*)V, 
-OVVTG)V, 



I! 



144 ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



-ovoi(v), 
-oevra, ) 
-ovvra, ) 
-devra, 
- ovvra. 



a. ) 



D. iieXir-6eoL(y), ) -oeooaig, 

fi£Xir-ovot(v), > -ovooatg, 

A. fieXir-osvrag, ) -oeoodg, 

[teXir-ovvrag, ) -ovooag, 

V. [MeXcr-oevreg, ) -oeooat, 

fieXir-ovvreg, $ -ovoaai, 

Remark 1. The new Attics said jUFTurovrra for fieXirovaca. — 
The Ionians contracted oe into ev ; as, nedla Xurevvra (I/., xii., 
283) : avOe/ievvrag (Anacr. ap. Athen., xi., 4, p. 214, ed Schw.). 

Remark 2. The neuter 6ev is sometimes, on account of the 
metre, changed into oelv ; as, ukwelv (Apoll. Rhod., ii., 406): 
Satcpvoetv (Id., iv., 1291). 

(8.) Termination in ag. 

I. Adjectives in ag have aiva in the feminine, and av in 
the neuter ; but participles in ag have the feminine in aaa. 

II. The adjective irdg, " a//," " every" is declined like a 
participle. 



uiX-ag, fieX- 


a^va, jieX-av, 






Singular. 




N. ueX-ag, 


-aiva, 




G. peX-avog, 


-alvrjg, 


-avoc\ 


D. fjsX-avL, 


-aivy, 


-aw, 


A. [liX-ava, 


-aivav, 


-av, 


V. peX-ag, 


-aiva, 


-av. 




Dual. 




N. fxeX-ave, 


-aiva, 


-ave, 


G. fjieX-dvoiv, 


-aivaiv, 


-aVo^v, 


D. fieX-dvoiv, 


■alvaiv, 


-dvo^v, 


A. fieX-ave, 


-aiva, 


-ave, 


V. fisX-ave, 


-aiva, 


-ave. 




Plural. 




N. fisX-aveg, 


-aivcu, 


-ava, 


G. [ieX-dvG)Vi 


-aiv&v, 


-avow, 


D. jJLeX-aoi(v), 


-aivaigy 


-a<7£, 


A. [liX-avag, 


-atvag, 


-ava, 


V. fjiiX-aveg, 


-aivai, 


-ava. 


Remark 1. The adjective ^eyaf is 


irregularly declined ; as, 



peyag, \LEyakn, fJLiya, &c. Consult Anomalous Adjectives, p. 154. 



ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS, 145 



Remark 2. Chceroboscus the grammarian, in Bekker's Anec- 
dota, p. 1421, aeq., quotes rd?iavTog as the genitive of rdTiag, 
from Hipponax and Antimachus ; and, from the comparative 
{lEMlvrepog, he rightly infers that the genitive of iiekaq was 
originally ^fkavroq. 

rvipag, rvxpaoa, rvipav, " having struck" 
Singular. 

N. rvib-ag, -acta, -av, 

G. rvip-avrog, -a>07]g, -avrog, 

D. rv^p-avrt, -a^Vi -avrt, 

A. rvxfj-avra, -aoav, -av, 

V. rvip-ac., -aaa, -av. 

Dual 



N. 


TV^p-avre, 


-doa, 


-avre, 


G. 


TVIp-dVTOLV, 


-aGaiv, 


-dvrotv, 


D. 


TV^-aVTOLV, 


-daatv, 


-dvroiv, 


A. 


rvip-avre, 
rvip-avre, 


-dad, 


-avre, 


V. 


-dad, 


-avre. 



N. rvip-avreg, 

G. TV1p'dvTG)V, 

D. rvip-aai(v), 
A. rvxp-avrag, 
Y. rvip-avreg, 



Plural 



-aoat, 

-aotiv, 

-derate;, 

-dodg, 

-aoai, 



-avra, 

-dVTG)V, 

-aot(v) 
-avra, 
-avra 



nag, naaa, nav, " all," " every" 
Singular. 

N. nag, naaa, nav, 

G. navrog, ndarjg, navrog, 

D. navri, ndarf, navri, 

A. ndvra, naoav, nav, 

V. nag, naoa, nav. 

Dual. 



N. ndvrs, 
G. ndvrotv, 
D. ndvroLV, 
A. ndvre, 

V, ndvre, 



naoa, 
ndaatv, 
n daatv, 
naaa, 

naaa., 
N 



navre, 

ndvrotv, 

ndvrotv, 

ndvrs, 

ndvre. 



146 ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



Plural. 

N. ndvreg, irdoac, irdvra, 

G. tt&vt(x>Vj nao&v, Trdvrojv, 

D. 7rdoi(v), ndaaig, 7tdoi(y)^ 

A. rrdvrag, rrdadg, rcdvra, 

V. ndvreg, Trdoai, ndvra. 



Remark. The a m nag is naturally long, as the circumflex 
shows, and continues so in Gv^aq. (Soph., Philoct., 1243, &c.) 
— "Anav, irapanav, &c, have the final syllable short in epic 
and lyric poetry, but long in iambic and trochaic. 

(9.) Termination in t\v. 
Adjectives in rjv have the feminine in eiva, and the 
neuter in ev. Of these, however, we find only one form 
existing in Greek ; namely, reprjv, repeiva, repev, " tender. 79 

repr\v, repeiva, repev, " tender 93 



Singular. 

N. rep-7\v, -eiva, -ev, 

G. rep-evog, -eivrjg, -evog, 

D. rep-evi, -zwy, ~evi, 

A. rep-eva, -eivav, -ei>, 

V. rep-ev, -eiva, -ev. 

Dual. 

N. rep-eve, -eiva, -eve, 

G. rep-evoiv, -eivaiv, -evoiv, 

D. rep.evoiv, -eivaiv, -evoiv, 

A. rep-eve, -eiva, -eve, 

V. rep-eve, -eiva, -eve. 

Plural. 

N. rep-eveg, -eivai, -eva, 

G. rep-evov, -eivtiv, -evov, 

D. rep : -eoi(v)) -elvaig, -eoi{v), 

A. rep-evag, -eivdg, -eva, 

V. rep-eveg, -eivai, -eva. 



(10.) Termination in ovg. 

This form is uncontracted. — It belongs to participles 
only, and makes the feminine in ovaa, and the neuter in 
6v. Thus, 



ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 147 



dovg, dovoa, dov, " having given" 
Singular. 



N. 


dove. 


dovG-a, 


dov, 


G. 


dovr-oc* 


dovG-7jg, 


dovr-og, 


D. 


dovr-t, 




dovr-i, 


A. 


dovr-a, 


dovG-av, 


dov, 
dov. 


V. 


dovg, 


dovG-a, 

Dual. 


N. 


dovr-e, 


dovG-d, 


dovr-e, 


G. 


doVT-OLV, 


dovG-aiv, 


doVT-OLV, 


D. 


doVT-OtV, 


dovG-acv, 


dovr-oiv, 


A. 


dovr-e, 


dovG-d, 


dovr-e, 


V. 


dovr-e, 


dovG-d, 
Plural. 


dovr-e. 


N. 


dovr-eg, 


doVG-GLL, 


dovr-a^ 


G. 


66VT-G)V, 

dovG-i(v), 


doVG-COV, 


d0VT.G)V, 

dovG-t(v), 


D. 


dovG-aig, 


A. 


dovr-ag, 


dovG-dg, 


dovr-a, 


V. 


dovr-eg, 


dovG-at, 


dovr-a. 



Remark. The original form of this participle was dovr-g, but 
the v was dropped along with the r-sound, in accordance with 
the rules of euphony, and the preceding short vowel (o) was 
lengthened into ov. (Compare page 37.) — So, again, the orig- 
inal form of dova-a, 6ovG-r)g y &c, was dovr-oa, dovT-eve, &C., 
and of the dative plural, 66vt-gl. 

(11.) Termination in cjv. 

I. The termination in cov makes ovGa in the feminine, 
and ov in the neuter. 

II. There are but two adjectives of this termination, 
namely, e/cuv, " vnlling" and its compound aefcuv, " un- 
willing," contracted by the Attics into aKGJv. All the other 
forms in G)v are participles. 

eic-uv, kfc-ovGa, en-ov, " willing" 



Singular. 

N. kfC-tiv, -OVGCL, -OV, 

G. EK-ovrog, -ovorjg, -ovrog, 

D. ktC.OVTl, -OVGf], -OVTl, 

A. kfc-ovra, -ovgclv, -ov, 

V. sk cjv, -qvgg,, .6v. 



148 ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



Dual. 

N. &K-0VT8, -OVOd, -OVT£, 

G. etc-ovTotv, -ovaaiv, -ovroiv, 

D. kn-ovrotv, -ovaatv, -ovtoiv, 

A. efc-ovre, -ovad, -ovre, 

V. eic-6vT£ 9 -ovGd, -6vr£. 

Plural. 

N. £fc*6vT£g, -ovoat, .ovra, 

G. £fC-6vTG)V, -OVGG)V, 'OVTOV, 

D. £/c-ovoi(y), -ovocug, -ovgl(v), 

A. kn-ovrag, -ovodg, -ovra, 

V. £ic.6vT£g, -ovoai, -ovra. 

tvttt.(*)v, TVTTT-ovoa, tvttt.ov, " striking." 
Singular. 

N. TV1TT'G)V, -ovoa, -ov, 

G. TVTTT-ovrog, -ov<77]g, -ovrog, 

D. TVTTT'OVTL, -OVG^j, -OVTL, 

A. TVTTT-ovra, -ovoav, -ov, 

V. tvttt-cjv, -ovcxa, ~ov. 

Dual. 

N. TV7TT-0VT8, -OVOd, -OVT£, 

G. TVTTT'OVTOIV, -OVGCUV, -OVTOLV, ' 

D. TVTTT-OVTOIV, -OVGdlV, -OVTOIV, 

A. TV7TT-OVT£, -OVGd, -OVT£, 

V. TV7TT-OVT£, -OVOd, -0VT8. 

Plural. 

N. TV7TT-OVT£g, -OVGdl, -OVTO,, 

G. TVITT'OVTGJV, -OVG&V, .OVTGJV, 

D. TVTTT OVGl(v), -OVGdig, -OVGl(v), 

A. TVTTT-ovrag, -ovGag, -ovra, 

V. TVTTT"OVT£g, -OVGGLl, -OVTCb. 

III. The present participle active of contracted verbs in 
do), eo), and 6o) fall under this head. 



IV. Those in tiv, contracted from dcov, make the femi- 
nine in CdGa, and the neuter in cov. On the other hand, 
those in cjv, contracted from either io)v or 6g)v, make the 
feminine in ovGa, and the neuter in ovv. Thus, 



ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 149 



Tifj,-&G)v, contracted rifi-cov, u honoring" 
Singular. 



N. Tl[A-&G)V, 


) -dovoa, 


) -dov, 


TlfjL-G)V, 


) -Gjoa, 


) "GOV, 


G. ~i\i-dov~og, 


) -aovorjg, 


) -dovrog, 


TlfX-tiVTOg, 


) -G)07]C, 


S -tivTog, 


D. Tlfl-aOVTL, 


) -aovo%j, 


) -aOVTLj 


Tl\L-Q>VTl, 




S -G)VTC, 


A. TLf.t"dovra, 


) -dovoav, 


) ~dov, 


fifi-GJVTa, 




S -tiv, 




) -dovoa, 


) -dov, 




) -cjoa, 


) -OJV. 




Dual. 




N. Tl[J,~d0VT£ f 


) -a ova a, 


1 -dovrs, 




S -tiod, 




G. Tip-CLOVTOLV, 


) -aovoaiv. 


) -aovToiv. 


Tlfl'CJVTOCV, 


) -G)GO,lV, 


\ -CJVTOIV, 


D. Tifi-aovrotv, 


) -aovoaiv. 


) .aovToiv, 


ri[i'(x)VTOiv 9 


S ~G)oaiv, 


) -UVTOIV, 


A. TL[I-d0VTS, 


) -aovoa, 


) -dovre, 




S -G)oa, 


) -Gjvre, 


V. TLfi-dovre, 


) -aovoa, 


) -dovre, 


TlfJ,-(x)VTE, 


) -Good, 


S ~G)VT£. 




Plural. 




N. TifjL-dovreg, 


) -dovoat, 


) -dovra, 


(ovreg, 


S -Gjoat, 


) -tivra, 


G. TLU-aOVTCJV, 


) -aovoojv, 


) -aOVTG)V, 


Tl[J,-G)VTG)V, 


) -G)OG)V, 


( -G)VTG)V, 


I). Tin-aovoi{v), 


) -aovoaig, 


} ~aovoL{v) 




) -tioaig, 


^ -tioi(v), 


A. nu-dovrag, 


) -aovoag, 


) -dovra, 


rifi-tivrag, 


) -cjoag, 


S 'tivra, 


V. rifi-dovreg, 


) -dovoat, 


I -dovra, 


Ti[i-G)VT£(;, 


S -G)oai, 


S -CovTa. 


(f)tX-sG)v, contracted (pcX-tiv, 


" loving" 




Singular. 




N. <j)iX-e(*)v y 


) -eovoa, 


) -eov, 




) -ovoa, 


J -ovv, 




N2 





50 ADJECTIVES, ETC.. OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



G. (ptX-eovrog, 
(piX-ovvrog, 

D. (f)lX-eOVTl, 
(pl.X-OVVTL, 

A . (ptX-eovra, 
(pcX-ovvra, 

V. <plX-£G)V, 
<ptX-6)V, 

N. (plX-SOVTS, 

(pcX-ovvre, 
G. (fnX-eovroiv, 

(piX-OVVTOLV, 

D. (piX-eovToiv, 

(plX-OVVTOLV, 
A. (f)lX'£OVT£, 

(piX-ovvre, 
V. (piX-eovre, 

(j)lX-OVVT£, 

N. (pi.X-eovreg, 
(piX-ovvieg, 

G. 4>lX-£OVT(j)V, 
(f)LX~OVVTG)V, 
D. (f)tX'EOVOi{v), 

cj)iX.ov(Ji(v), 
A. (ptX-eovrag, 

tyiX-ovvraq, 
V. (ptX-eovTsg, 

<piX-ovvreg, 



-eovorjc;, 
.ovorjg, 

-EOVOXj, 

-ovcrq, 

-eovoav, 

-ovoav, 

-eovoa, 
-ovoa, 

Dual, 
-eovoa, 
-ovoa, 
-eovoatv, 
-ovoaiv, 
-eovoaiv, 
-ovoaiv, 

-eovoa, 
-ovoa, 
-eovoa, 
-ovoa, 

Plural. 

-eovoai, 

-ovaaiy 

-eovotiv, 

-OVOOJV, 

-eovoaig, 

-ovoaig, 

-eovodg, 

-ovoag, 

-eovoai, 

-ovoai. 



[iio6-6g)v, contracted \iioQ-&v 

Singular. 



N. fiLo6-6(*)v, 

fJLlod-G)V, 

G. [iLod-oovTog, 

fjLLOS-OVVTOg, 
D. flloO-OOVTl, 
[IloO-OVVTl, 



-oovoa, 
-ovoa, 

-OOVOT]^, 

-ovorjg, 
-oovoxj, 

-OVO'Q, 



" hiring" 



ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



151 



A. 


fxtod-oovra, ) 


-oovaav, 




fitad-ovvra, S 


-ovaav, 


V. 


[iiod-ocov, j 


-oovoa, 




ulou-gjv, ) 


-ovoa, 






Dual. 


N. 


fitad-oovre, j 


-oovad, 




fiLoO-ovvre, S 


-ovad, 


G. 


{Jlod-OOVTOtV, ) 


-oovaaiv, 




flLOd-OVVTOLV, > 


-ovaaLv, 


D. 


[ILOd-OOVTOLV, j 


-oovoatv, 




(Iiod-OVVTOIV, \ 


-ovoatv, 


A. 


fjLLod-oovre, ) 


-oovad, 




fjioO-ovvre, S 


-ovod, 


V. 


[ilgO-oovte, ) 


-oovod, 




[itoO-ovvre, S 


-ovoa, 






Plural. 


N. 


fMcd-oovreg, j 


-oovgcll, 




p,Lod-ovvTeg, j 


-ovocll, 


G. 


(xig0-o6vtg)v, ) 


-OOVOGJV, 




[JLLOd-OVVTG)V, ) 


-OVOG)V, 


D. 


jlLo6-6oVGL(v), ) 


-oovaaig, 




flLoO-OVOL(v), ) 


-ovaaig, 


A. 


fitad-oovrag, ) 


-oovoag, 




fiiod-ovvrag, S 


-ovoag, 


V. 


\iLGB-6ovTeg, ) 


-oovocll, 




{jbtdd'Ovvreg, S 


-OVGGLL, 



-oov, 
-ovv, 
-oov, 
-ovv. 



-OOVTE, 

-ovvre, 

-OOVTOLV, 
-OVVTOLV, 
-OOVTOLV, 
-OVVTOLV ^ 

-00VT6, 
-OVVTE, 
-OOVTS, 
-OVVTS. 



-OOVTd, 
-OVVTd. 



-OOVTG)V 
-OVVTGJV 

-6ovol(v), 
-ovcl(v), 

-OOVTd, 
-OVVTd 



-OOV 

-ovv 



Ta, ) 

T(L. S 



V. The future participle active of Liquid Verhs, that is, 
verbs ending in Xg), fio), vg), poj, where the final vowel of 
the present is preceded by a liquid, are declined according 
to the analogy of (pLXtiv, (piXovaa, faXovv. 

VI. Thus, dyyeX-tiv, dyyeX-ovod, dyyeX-ovv, future 
participle of iyyeXX-G) : vsfx-G)v^ vsfi-ovcfa, vefi-ovv, future 
participle of vefi-G) : <j>av-GJV, (pav-ovoa, <pav-ovv, future par- 
ticiple of (paiv-oj : anep-ojv, anep-ovaa, onep-ovv, future 
participle of aneLpo). 

VII. It must be borne in mind that these future partici- 
ples are^ in reality, so many contractions themselves from 



152 ADJECTIVES, ETC. ? OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



earlier forms, a remark that will serve to make the analogy 
between them and (frtX-tiv more complete. Thus, old 
form, dyyeX-eocdv : Epic and Ionic, dyyeX-euv : Attic, 
dyyeX-tiv. And, again, old form, ve[x-eoG)v : Epic and 
Ionic, vsfi-ecov : Attic, vefi-tiv, and so of the rest. 



dyyeX-tiv, dyyeX-ovoa, dyyeX-ovv, " about to announce." 
Singular. 

-ovaa, -ovv, 

-ovarjg, -ovvrog, 

-ovo%i, -ovvri, 

-ovoav, -ovv, 

-ovoa, -ovv. 

Dual. 

-ovaa, 



N. dyyeX-tiv, 
G. dyyeX-ovvrog, 
D. ayyeX-ovvn, 
A. dyyeX- ovvra, 
V. dyy eX-tiv, 



N. dyyeX-ovvre, 
G. dyyeX-ovvroiv, 
D. dyyeX-ovvrotv, 
A. dyyeX-ovvre, 
V. dyyeX-ovvre, 



-OVVrE, 
-OVVrOlV, 
• OVVrOLV, 
-0VVT8, 
-OVVTE. 



N. dyyeX-ovvreg, 
G. dyyeX-ovvroyv, 
D. dyyeX-ovoc(v), 
A. dyyeX-ovvrag, 
V. dyyeX-ovvreg, 



•ovaaiv, 
-ovaaiv, 
-ovaa, 
•ovaa 

Plural. 

-ovaai, -ovvra, 

-OVOG)V, -OVVrGJV, 

-ovaaig, -ovoi{v), 
-ovaag, -ovvra, 
-ovaai, -ovvra. 

Remark. The present participles active of these same verbs 
are declined like tvtttuv, on page 148. Thus, ayyi/il-cov, ayy- 
ehX-ovcra, ayytW-ov : gen. ayye.X}\.-ovrog, a.yye/lTi-ovarjg, ayyiXk- 
ovrog, &c. 

(12.) Termination in ojg. 

I. This termination belongs exclusively to participles. 
The feminine ends in via, and the neuter in 6g ; as, re- 
rvcp-cog, rervcp-vla, rsrvfi-og. 

II. The syncopated forms, however, of the perfect parti- 
ciple active make the feminine in (baa, and the neuter in 
ojg and 6g : as, ear-Gig, ear-oiaa, ear-ojg, and kar-og. 

Remark 1. The termination as has just been mention- 
ed, arises from contraction. Thus, masculine y kara-ug, contracted 



ADJECTIVES, ETC., OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 153 



ior6g: neuter, kara-oc, contracted kaTuc- The feminine termi- 
nation in Cxra is a peculiar one, though apparently the result of 
contraction. 

Remark 2. The neuter, it will be perceived, has two forms, 
-wf and -df. Of these, the former, at first view, appears the 
more regular one, as arising more naturally from contraction ; 
while the ending in -6c seems, on the other hand, at variance 
with the rules that regulate contraction. But, in all probability, 
this ending in 6c does not arise from contraction at all, and ap- 
pears to be formed after the analogy of rervtyog. 

Remark 3. The neuter ending in 6c occurs, for the most part, 
in the earlier editions. More modern scholars have adopted 
that in 6c from some of the best manuscripts. Thus we have 
in Thucydides (iv., 10) TrepiecToc, as given by Poppo : in Sopho- 
cles {(Ed. T.y 633) 7raoeordf, by Hermann : in Aristophanes 
(Equ., 564) the same, by Dindorf : in Plato (de Leg., vii., p. 794, 
D.) KadecToc, by Bekker. 

TSTU(p-G)g, T£TV(p-vla, TSTv(f)-6g, " having struck.' 9 







Singular. 




N. 


rervcp-cjg, 


-via, 


-og, 


G. 


TETV(f)-6TOg, 


-vtdg, 


-orog, 


D. 


rervip-OTL, 


-via, 


-ore. 


A. 


rsTv^oraj 


-vlav, 


-og, 


V. 




•via, 


-6g. 






Dual. 




N. 


TETvep-ore, 


•via, 


-ore, 


G. 


r£TV<p-6rotv, 


-viatv, 


-OTOU', 


D. 


T£TV(p-OTOLV, 


-vtaiv, 


•OTOLV, 


A. 


T£TV(f)-6T£, 


-via, 


-OTE, 


V. 


T£TV<p-6TE, 


-via, 


-OT£. 






Plural. 




N. 


TETV(p-OT£g, 


-vlai, 


-ora, 


G. 


T£TV<p-OTG)V, 


-VICOV, 


-6tg)v, 


D. 


TETV(j)-6ot(v), 


-vlatg, 


-6oi{v) 


A. 


TETVtfi-orag, 


•vlag, 


-ora, 


V. 


TETVCp-OTEg, 


-viae, 


-ora. 



£OT~G)g, EOT-tica, EGT-ug, and kor-og, " standing." 
Singular. 

N. ear-tig, -tiaa, -tig and .6g, 

G. kar-tirog, -tiarjg, -0>rog, 



154 ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



D. 


eOr-(x)ri, 


*tit5<§, 


-tin, 

-tig and 




A. 


ear -una, 


-tiaav, 


-6g, 


V. 


ear-tig, 


-tiaa, 
Dual. 


-tig and 


~6g. 


N. 


eOT'GJTE, 


-tiad, 


-(ore, 




G. 


8OT-(a)T0LV, 


•tiaCLlV, 


-tiroiv, 




D. 


kOT-OJTOLV, 


-tiaCLLV, 


-tiroiv, 




A. 




-tiad, 


"tire, 




V. 


ear-tire, 


"tiad, 

Plural. 


-tire. 




N. 


ear-tireg, 


-tiaai. 


-tira, 




G. 


e<7T-(*)TG)V, 


-Giativ, 


-tir(*)V, 




D. 


ear-tiat(v), 


-tiaaig, 


-tiai(v), 




A. 


ear-tirag, 


-tiadg, 


-tira, 




V. 


kar-tireg, 


-tiaCLL, 


-tira. 





ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 

I. Originally some adjectives had two forms, of both of 
which certain cases have been retained in use ; so that the 
cases which are wanting in one form are supplied by those 
of the other. Of this kind are fieyag, fjLeydXrj, \ieya, 
" great noXvg, tcoXXtj, rroXv, " much and npdog, npa- 
ela, rcpdov, " mildP 

II. In the declension of \ieyag two stems appear, name- 
ly, MErAT and MErAAO, or MErAAA. From the for- 
mer of these comes \ieyag (i. e. y fieyar-g) ; and from the 
latter peydXog, fern, \LeydXr\. 

III. From fieydXog, the feminine \ieydXi] has remained 
in use throughout, as well as the entire dual and plural, and 
the genitive and dative masculine and neuter of the singular 
number. The remaining cases, i. e., the nominative, accu- 
sative, and vocative singular, masculine and neuter, are ta- 
ken from \ieyag. 

IV. In the declension of noXvg two stems in like man- 
ner appear, namely, IIOAT and IIO A AO. From the for- 
mer of these comes noXvg, from the latter noXXog. In 
TroXvg, the feminine, and the dual and plural numbers are 
entirely taken from iroXXog. 



ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 155 



V. The adjective npaog forms itself in part after upavg, 
which exists as a dialectic variety ; or, in other words, it 
follows in some of its inflections the termination vg , ela, v. 



N. fiey-ag, 
G. fiey-aXoVy 
D. pey-aXo), 
A. fiey-av, 
V. fiey.ag, 

N. fzey-aXo), 

G. fj.ey-dXoiv, 

D. (Jiey-dXoLV, 

A. fjL£y-&X(*), 

V, (j,£y-akG), 

N. [xsy-aXot, 
G. fiey-dXajv, 
D. fiey-dXotg, 
A. fxey-aXovg, 
V. [xey-dXot, 



[leyac, "great." 
Singular. 
fiey-dXrj, 
[ley-dXrjg, 
fjiey-dXrj, 
fieydXrjv, 
fiey-dXr], 

Dual. 
fisy-dXd, 
[jbey-dXcuv, 
(.tsy-dXaiv, 
fiey-dXd, 
fiey-dXd, 

Plural. 
fiey-dXat, 
fiey-aXtiv, 
fiey-dXatg, 
[.isy-dXag, 



uey-a, 
fiey dXov, 
fxey-aAcOj 
pey-a, 
[.ley-a. 

fiey-aXo), 

fiey-dXotv, 

pey-dAotv, 

fj,ey-dAG), 

fiey-dXco. 

(isy-dXa, 
[iey-dXo)v, 
fiey-aXotg, 
fxey-dXa, 
fj.ey.dXa. 



v . ju,c y-uu/wL, fxey-dXat, 

Remark. The radical form iieyalog is never found in the 
nominative and accusative singular, masculine, and neuter ; 
nor yet in the vocative masculine, except in the single instance 
of fteydXe Zev, in JEschylus. (Sept. c. Theb., 822.) 



N. TTOA-Vg, 

G. noXX-ov, 
D. ttoXa-g), 

A. TToX-VV, 

V. rcoX-v, 



noXvg, " much." 

Singular. 
TroXA~r}, 

TTOAA-rjC, 

ttoXa-%1, 

TTOAA-rjV, 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 

V:. 



1ToXX-(a), 

ttoXXolv, 

TToXX-OtV, 

ttqXX-gi, 

7TOXX-G), 



)XX-rj, 
Dual. 
noXX-d, 
TToXX-alv, 
TToXX-alv. 
noXX-d, 

7T0XX-d, 



. TTOX-V, 
TTOXX-OV, 

noXX-G), 

7WX-V, 
TtoX-V . 

TTOXX-G), 

rcoXX-olv, 

TToXX-OLV, 
7T0XX-G), 

ttoXX-oj. 



156 ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



Plural. 



N. 7TOAX-Ot y 
G. 7ToXX-(x)V, 

D. noXX-olg, 
A. noXX-ovg, 

V. TToXX-OL, 



TloXX-idV, 

rroXX-alg, 

iroXX-ag, 

rcoXX-at, 



rroXX-d, 

ttoXX-gjv, 

rroXX-olg, 

TcoXX-d, 

rroXX-d. 



Remark 1. The Ionic dialect declines noAAog regularly 
throughout ; as, nom. iro?.A6g, tto?J^, ttoa?»6v : gen. tto? u aov, 7roA- 
Xrjg, ttoaaov : acc. tto?ia6v, tto/J^v, tcoXaov : voc. tto?iAe, noWi], 
ttoaaov. — We even find ttoXaoq in Sophocles (A?itig., 86). 

Remark 2. In the Epic language, no?,vg is regularly declined 
in the masculine and neuter. In Homer we find the following 
forms : 

Sing. N. izoAvg and ttov?ivc, tcoaatj, ttoav, 

G. TCOAEOg, 

A. 7ro?iVv and tcovavv. 
Plur. N. nolzeg and ttoaels, 
G. noAeuv, 

D. TTOACGL, TC0A£<7Gl, and TToXiSGffl, 

A. izoAsag and 7:o7xlg. 



Trpaog, " mild" 
Singular. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



npd-og, or -e, 




TTpa-sta, 

npa-eidg, 

rrpa-eia, 

rrpa-elav, 

rrpa-Eca, 




N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



7Tpa-G), 

npd-oiv, 

TTpd-OlV, 

irpd-G), 

7Tpd-G), 





rrpa-SLd, 
TTpa-eid, 



Plural. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



rrpd-oc and rrpa-slg, npa-elat, 

TTpa-ecjv, Trpa-etcov, 

irpd-oig and rrpa-eoifv), Txpa-uaig, 

rrpd-ovg " rrpa-slg, Txpa-zidg, 

rrpd-oc " npa-elg, rrpa-elai, 



rrpa-ea, 

77pa-£G)V, 



7Tpa-eoi(v), 




ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



157 



II. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



(1.) Termination in og, neuter ov. 

evdogog, " of high repute." 
Singular. 



TV 


evdo^og, 




• OV, 


G. 


evdo^-ov, 


-ov, 


-ov, 


D. 


C 1/ \J\Ji^ KXJ , 


• » 




A. 


evdo^-ov, 


-ov. 

3 


9 


V. 


evdo§~E, 


3 

Dual. 


-Ol>. 








• G), 


G. 






• OLV, 


D. 


evdog-oLV, 




-OLV, 


A. 


evdog-G), 


-w, 


-G), 


V. 


-0), 
Plural. 


'(x). 


N. 


evdo^ot, 


-01, 


•a, 


G. 


evdog-ov, 


-G)V, 




D. 


evdog-oig, 


-oig, 


-ocg, 


A. 


evdog-ovg, 
evdog-OL, 


-ovg, 


-a, 


V. 


-01, 


-a. 



(2.) Termination in ovg, neuter ovv. 

I. Adjectives of this termination are, 1. Such as are 
formed, by composition, from the contracted substantives 
vovg and nXovg, and are, therefore, declined like these in 
the masculine and feminine, and in the neuter like oorovv, 
but with this difference, that the neuter plural in oa suffers 
no contraction. 2. Such as are formed, by composition, 
from the substantive rrovg : as, 6, rj, noXvnovg, to ttoXv- 
ttovv. 

II. These derivatives of 7roi;c are susceptible of a double 
inflection, and follow, in part, the contracted second de- 
clension, in part the third ; as, gen. iroXvirodog and ttoXv- 
ttov : accus. TroXviroda and itoXvttovv, &c. 

Remark. The form nolvnov may, perhaps, be more correctly 
referred to the regular second declension in og, since, even in 
Homer, the forms Tp'iTrog, aeXXonog, &c., appear. 
O 



158 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



evvovg, " well-disposed" 
Singular. 

N. evv-ovg, -ovg, -ovv, 

G. evv.ov, -ov, -ov, 

D. evv.G), -<*), -fc>, 

A. evv-ovv, -ovv, -ovv, 

V. evv-ov, -ov, -ow. 

N. evv-G), -6), -6), 

G. EVV-OIV, -OLV, -OIV, 

D. EVV-OIV, -OIV, -OIV, 

A. eVV-G), -6), -G), 

V. evv-6), -6). -6> 

Plural, 

N. evv-Qi, -oi, -oa, 

G. EVV-CJV, -h)V, -G)V, 

D. Evv-oig, -oig, -otg, 

A. evv-ov^, -oa, 

V. evv-oi, -oi, -oa. 

evnXovg, " sailing well" 
Singular. 

N. £V7rA-oi;^, -ot>£, -ow, 

&. ev7rX-oi;, -ov, -ot>, 

D. evttX-g), -a>, 

A. evttX-ovv, -ovv, -ovv, 

V. evttX-ov, -ov, -ovv. 

Dual 

N» £$7T/l-G), -6), -0), 

G. evttX-oiv, -oiv, -oiv, 

D. evitX-oiv, -oiv, -oiv, 

A. e#7rA-<y, -a>, -a), 

V. svttX-g), -G), -G). 

N. evttX-ol, -oi, -oa, 

G. £VTcX-G)V, -G)V, -G)V, 

D. £#7r/l-0£f, -0££, -0£^, 

A. EvnX-ovg^ -ovg, -oa, 

V. evirX-oi, -en, -oa. 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



159 



N. TTOXVTT- 

G. TTOXVTC- 

D. TtoXvTT* 

A. rroXvft- 

V. TToXviT- 

N. TToZvTT- 

G. 7roAi;7r- 

D. uoXvn- 

A. TToXviT- 

V. 7TO/li>7r- 

N. 7ro/U;7r- 

G. ttoA?;7t- 

D. TToXviT- 

A. ttoXvu- 

V. 7TO/IV7T- 



TroAvTrovf , " many-footed" 
Singular, 
■ovg, -ovg, 
-odog and -ov, -o<5oc and -ov, 
■odi, -ode, 
oda and -ovv, -oda and -ovv, 



ode, 

odoiv, 

odoiv, 

ode, 

ode, 

■odeg, 

■odojv, 

■ooi(y), 

■odag, 

■odeg, 



-ov, 
Dual, 
-ode, 
-odoiv, 
-odoiv, 
-ode, 
-ode, 

Plural, 
-odeg, 
-odov, 

-0(Jl(v), 

-odag, 
-odeg, 



-ovv, 

-odog and -ov, 

-ode, 

-ovv, 

-ovv. 

-ode, 

-odoiv, 

-odoiv, 

-ode, 

-ode. 

-oda, 

-6d(ov, 

•oai{v), 

-oda, 

-oda. 



(3.) Termination in ovg, neuter ov. 

Under this head fall the compounds of odovg : as, fiovo* 
dovg, neuter povodov, gen. fiovodovrog : their declension 
being like that of the simple odovg. So, dvodovg, gen. 
dvodovrog : /capxapodovg, gen. napxapod ovrog, &c. 



N. jiovod-ovg, 

G. fjLOvod-ovrog, 

D. \iovod-ovTi, 

A. [lovod-ovra, 

V. fiovod-ovg, 

N. fiovod-ovre, 
G. povod -ovroiv, 

D. \LOVod-OVrOlV, 

A. fiovod-ovre, 
V. fiovod-ovre, 



fiovodovg, " one-toothed.' 
Singular, 
-ovg, 
-ovrog, 



-OVTl, 

-ovra, 
-ovg, 



Dual. 



-ovre, 
-ovroiv, 

-OVrOlV, 

-ovre, 
-ovre, 



-ov, 

-ovrog, 

-ovre, 

-ov, 

-ov. 



-ovre, 

-ovroiv, 

-ovroiv, 

-ovre, 

-ovre. 



160 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS* 



N. fiovod-ovreg, 
G. fjt,ovod-6vTG)v, 

D. flOVod-QVGl, 

A. fiovod ovrag, 
V. (xovod-ovreg, 



Plural. 

-ovreg, 

-OVTOV, 
-OVGL, 

-ovrag, 
-ovreg, 



-ovra, 

-OVTG)V, 

-OVOL, 

-OVTCL, 

-ovra. 



(4.) Termination in cog, neuter cjv. 
Adjectives of this termination follow the Attic Second 
Declension ; as, 6, rj, cXecog, to IXeoiv : gen. IXeo), &c. 

tXeug, "propitious." 
Singular. 
-coc, 

-G)V 9 
-G)C, 
Dual. 
-CO, 
-G)V, 
-0)V, 

m 

•0), 
Plural. 

-<*>, 
-G)V, 

-G)g, 



N. ?/le-a)c 9 

G. IXe-G), 

D. Z/le-G), 

A. lXs-cov, 

V. iAe-w^, 

N. ?Ae-6>, 

G. iXe-(*)v, 

D. ?Ae-a)^, 

A. iXe-cj, 

V. i/U-o), 

N. ZAe-a), 

G. lXe-ojv, 

D. tXe-cog, 

A. iXs-cog, 



-w, 



-wv, 

-6). 



-0). 



Remark 1. The accusative singular ends regularly in but 
many compounds have it in w ; as, d^coxpeo), avdnXeo. 
Remark 2. The simple nXeog has three endings, namely, 
Nora. nTieog, ir?iea, nTisuv, 
Gen. nXgo, irTieag, rrXio). 
Plur., Nom. nXey, nAf.ai, ttTieo., &c. 
The compounds, however, are generally of two termina- 
tions ; as, o, rj, avdirTieoyg. In the Ionic dialect, however, even 
these have a separate form for the feminine ; as, EfinXeai. And 
so, also, of the simple nlewc, we find the nominative plural 
7t/Ucj> not unfrequently, for the masculine and feminine. Eu- 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



161 



ripides {Alcest., 730) has nleov in the neuter singular ; in this 
following Homer. (Od., xx., 355.) Plato, moreover, has l/iea 
as the neuter plural of lleug. (Pkadon., p. 95, A.) 

Remark 3. From the old radical form odog, we have, by con- 
traction, 6, jy, oCog, to adv. This word, besides the nominative 
cug, gov, forms only the accusative singular guv, according to 
the Attic second declension. The plural is mixed up with 
forms from cug, according to the third declension, and with 
forms from the lengthened Guog, namely, 

Plur., N. Gug (from cueg) and guol, neut. cua, seldom ca 
(from ada). 

A. cug (from otiag) and Guovg, neut. Gua, seldom ca. 

In the Epic language we have Goog, shortened from cuog. — 
Corresponding to cug is the Homeric £wc, " living''' (from £aoc), 
whence, in the common language, came &6g. 

Remark 4. The compounds of yelug and ncpag follow partly 
the Attic second declension, partly the third : thus, 6, ?/, <pi%6- 
yeTiug, to <bi\6yzkuv : gen. yiXoyeXu and QihoyeXuTog : — o, rj,XP v ~ 
Gotcepug, to xpvaonzpuv : gen. xpvooKepo and xpvcroKepoTog : 
— povfcepog : gen. f3ovKepu and povnepuTog, &c. The adjective 
dvGepug has the same accentuation, but follows only the third 
declension ; as, SvGepuTog, &c. — Out of the forms of the Attic 
second declension arise shortened forms, which follow the or- 
dinary second declension ; as, dUepov, vrjtcepoi, uKspa. 

Remark 5. Dissyllabic adjectives in ug, belonging to this class, 
are paroxytons ; but polysyllabic ones are proparoxytons, when 
the ending cog has either an e immediately before, or else only 
a liquid intervening ; as, IXeog, xP v °oKepug : but ayrjpug, fiafcpo- 
yrjpug, &c. 

(5.) Termination in g)v, neuter ov. 
GGxfypcov, " discreet" 
Singular. 

N. G(x)(j)p'G)V, -G)V, -OV, 

G. GGxpp.ovog, -ovog, -ovoq, 

D. auxjyp-ovi, -ovi, -ovi, 

A. ococpp-ova, -ova, -ov, 

V. OG)<pp-OV, -OV, -OV. 

Dual. 

N. OG)(pp-ove, -ove, ~ove, 

G. GGXpp-OVOlV, -OVOIV, -OVOIV, 

O 2 



162 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



D. OG)(pp-6vOLV, 
A. OGX/)p-0V€, 

V. oo(pp-ove, 



N. odj(f)p-oveg, 

G. ooxpp-ovcdv, 

D. OG)(pp-0OL(v), 

A. <TG»ftp-ovag, 

V. odocpp-oveg, 



-OVOLV, -OVOLV, 

-ore, -ove, 
-ove, -ove. 

Plural. 

-ovee, -ova, 

-OV6l)V, -ovwv, 

-ooy(v), -0<7£(v), 

-ovag, -ova, 

-oveg, -ova. 

Remark. Adjectives in ov are paroxytons, and in the neuter 
properispomena. Comparatives carry the tone back as far as 
the final syllable will allow ; as, exOtov : but exdiov. 

I. Under this same head fall comparatives in cov, which 
are declined like odjcppov, except that they are syncopated 
and contracted in the accusative singular, and in the nomi- 
native, accusative, and vocative plural. 

II. These comparatives end in ov, neuter ov ; and lov, 
neuter wv ; and it is to be remarked that the i in those in 
iov, lov, is with the Attic poets regularly long ; only sel- 
dom short ; but with the old Epic writers always short. 
With the later Epic poets and the epigrammatic writers 
the quantity varies ; thus, fieXrlov, (3eXrlov, Attic ; but /te/U 
rlov, (3eXrlov, Epic, and so of the rest. 

fiei^ov, " greater" 
Singular. 

-OV, 



N. fiei^-ov, 

G. \iei^.ovog, 

D. fiel^-ovL, 

A. fiei£~ova, 

-oa, syncope 
-o, crasis, 

V. fiel^-ov, 

N. fJLEL^-OVS, 
G. fJL£t£-6vOlV, 

D. uei^-ovoiv, 
A. fiet^-ove, 

V, [ISL^-OVS, 



Dual. 



-ovog, 
-ovl, 
-ova, ) 
-oa, > 

-O, ) 

-ov, 
-ovs, 

-OVOLV, 
-OVOLV, 
-OVS, 
-OVE, 



-OV, 

-ovog, 

-OVL, 

-ov, 
-ov. 

-ove, 

-OVOLV, 
-OVOLV, 

-ove, 
-ove. 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 163 



Plural. 



-otc, syncope, > 
-ovg, crasis, ) 

G. [iei%-6v(x)v, 

D. ixel$-ool(v), 

A. iiei^-ovaq, \ 
-oac, syncope, \ 
-ovg, crasis, ) 

V. fist^-ovEg, \ 
-0£c, syncope, J> 
-ovq, crasis, ) 



exOtcov, " more hostile" 

Singular. 



N. ex6t-G)v, 

G. exOi-ovog, 

D. exOl-ovc, 

A. exOt-ova, 

-oa, syncope, 
-a), crasis, 

V. e%0l-ov 9 

N. exOc-ove, 

G. exOi-ovotv, 

D. exOt-ovocv, 

A. exOt-ove, 

V. exOt-ove, 




Dual. 



-ove, 

-ovoiv, 

-ovoiv, 

-ove, 

-ove, 



Plural. 



N. exOc-ovsg, 

-0£c, syncope, 
-ol>c, crasis, 

G. £%#£-oVc.JV, 

D. e^0£ ocr^(^), 
A. exOl-ovag, 

-oac, syncope, 

-ot>c, crasis, 
V. e;^0/:-oi>£C, 

-0£c, syncope, 

-ove, crasis, 

Remark. We often find with the x\ttics 
forms in ova, ovag ; seldom, however, those 



-ova, I 
-oa, I 

-G), ) 
-OVCOV, 

-ool(v), 
-ova, ) 
-oa, V 

-6), ) 

-ova, ) 
-oa, V 



-ov, 

-01>OC, 
-OW, 

-ov, 
-ov. 

-ove, 

-OVOLV, 
-OVOIV, 
-OVE, 
-OVE. 



-ovEg, ) 


-ova, i 


-oec, ) 


-oa, \ 


-ovg, ) 


-OJ, ) 


-6vct)v, 


-OVGJV, 


-ool(v), 


-ooi(v), 


-ovag, ) 


-ova, ) 


-oac, > 


-oa, > 


-ove, ) 


-w, ) 


-ovsg, ^ 


-ova, \ 


-0£C, > 


-oa, > 


-OfC, ) 


-a). ) 



the uncontracted 
in oveg ; as, {i£i£o~ 



164 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



va, ITiurrova, naTJiiova, in Plato : izTieovag in Thucydides : fisi- 
£oveg, rjaooveg, in Euripides : /3e9iTloveg in Aristophanes, &c. 

(6.) Termination in r)g, neuter eg. 

I. Adjectives in f)g, of two terminations, undergo con- 
traction, changing eog into ovg : el into el : ea into rj, &c. 

II. But when the termination rjg is preceded by a vowel, 
then ea is contracted into a, not into rj ; as, duXerjg, duXeea, 
contracted dfcXea : vyirjg, vyiea, contracted vyta. And yet 
we sometimes even here have the contraction in t) ; as, 
vyir), dMpvrj, dc^vr). 

Remark 1. We have already given an example of the in- 
flection of adjectives in rjg, among the paradigms of the third 
declension ; namely, aatyrjg. Consult page 89. 

Remark 2. The compounds of &rog have often a special form 
for the feminine, namely, in -eng. gen. -eridog ; as, eirTiryg, fern. 
eKTeng. Hence we have in Aristophanes, airovdal rptaKovrov- 
rideg: and, in Plato, fiera rbv e^erjj teal ttjv k^env. {Leg., viii., 
p. 333, Bip.) 

Remark 3. The Epic language has a special feminine form 
in eia, of certain compounds in rjg ; as, fiovvoyeveia, fem. of 
[lovvoyevrjg. So, rjpLyeveia, Tjdveneia, Kvirpoysveia, TpLToytveia, 
&c. 

dXrjSrjg, 66 true" 

Singular. 



N. 


dXr]d-rjg, 




G. 


dXrjO-eog, ) 


-eog, 




-ovg, \ 


-ovg, 


D. 


dX?]d-el, ) 


-el, 




-el, $ 


-el, 


A. 


dXrjO-ea, ) 


-ea, 




•% S 




V. 


dXrjd-eg, 








Dual. 


N. 


dXrjd-ee, ) 


-ee, 






% 


G. 


dXrjd-eoiv, ) 


-eoiv, 




-olv, ) 


-olv, 



-eog, 
-ovg, 
-el, 
-el, 

-eg. 
-ee, 



-eoiv, ) 
-olv, S 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



165 



D. d\r\d-£OLV, ) 


-EOLV, 


-olv, ) 


-olv, 


A. aXrid-ee, ) 

> 


-EE, 






V. dXinB-EE, ) 


-ee, 


■n, ! 






Plural. 


N. a?i7]0-e£g, ) 


-eeg, 


) 


-elg, 


G. dXTjQ eoiv, > 


-EG)V, 




-CdV, 


D. ClXt]Q • EG L^V^ , 


-£GL(v)< 


A. dX7jd-eag, > 




J 


-efc 


V. aArjQ-eeg, ) 






-e£c, 



vylr\g, " healthy." 



Dual. 



N. vyl-EE, 
-% 

G. vyi-Eoiv, 
-olv, 

D. vyl-soLv, 
-olv, 

A. vyl-EE, 



-ee, 

-EOLV, 

-olv, 

-EOLV, 

-olv, 

-EE, 

-n* 

-EE, 



-EOLV, J 

-cwv, ) 
-ee, ) 
) 

-ee, > 
4- > 



-ea, ) 

-ft $ 
-ewv, > 

-e^v), 
-ia, 

-ia, 





Singular. 




N. vyl-rjg, 






G. vyl-iog, 






-ovg, 






D. vyl-il, 




-EL, 


-eI, 




-el, 


A. vyl-Ea, 


J -ea, ) 




-a, 




V. vyl-ig, 







-EE, 
-% 

-EOLV, 

-olv, 

-EOLV, 

-OLV, 

-EE, 

-EE, 

-n> 



166 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



Plural. 

N. vyl-eeg, ) -eeg, ) -ea, ) 

-etg, ) -elg, $ V 

G. Vyi-EG)V, ) -EG)V, ) -£G)V, } 

-CiV, \ -G)V, ) -GJV, ) 

D. vyl-eoi(y), -eai(v), -e<u(v), 

A. vyl-eag, ) -eag, ) -ea, ) 

-slg, ) -elg, S S 

V. vyl-eeg, ) -eeg, ) -ea, ) 

) -elg, S -77. S 



(7.) Termination in rjv, neuter ev. 
The only adjective that falls under this head is apprjv, 
" male" It makes the neuter in ev, and the genitive in 
-evog, and follows the third declension throughout. 

Remark. The old Attic form of this adjective was aporjv, for 
which the Ionians said eporjv. This form aparjv, moreover, is 
the only one found in Homer, and in Attic writers until the 
time of Plato ; while Herodotus, on the other hand, uses only 
the Ionic lpar\v. The same may be said of all derivatives and 



compounds. 

appr\v, "male? 
Singular, 

N. app-r\v, -tjv, -ev, 

G. app-evog, -evog, -evog, 

D. app-evt, -eve, -eve, 

A. app-eva, -eva, -ev, 

V. app-ev, -ev, -ev. 

Dual. 

N. app-eve, -eve, -eve, 

G. dpp-evoiv, -evoiv, -evoiv, 

D. dpp-evoiv, -evoiv, -evoiv, 

A. app-eve, -eve, -eve, 

V. app-eve, -eve, -eve. 

Plural. 

N. app-eveg, -eveg, -eva, 

G. dpp-evo)v, -evov, -evcjv, 

D. app-eoi(y), -eai(v), -eai(v), 

A. app-evag, -evag, -eva, 

V. app-eveg, -eveg, -eva. 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



167 



(8.) Termination in tg, neuter t. 



I. Adjectives in eg, of two terminations, commonly form 
the genitive, after the Ionic manner, in tog : as, tdptg, gen. 
tdptog : vrjGTig, gen. vrjertog. The strict Attic termination, 
however, for the genitive of these adjectives is ecog ; as, 
tdpecog, vrjareojg. 

Remark. In the few simple adjectives of this termination we 
find, besides the ending log, a poetic one in idog, which, how- 
ever, is not of frequent occurrence ; as, Idpig, gen. Idpidog : 
— vfjarig, gen. vrjandog. 

II. The compound adjectives of this termination are 
mostly declined like the substantives from which they 
come ; thus, evx^ptg ma kes evx^ptrog in the genitive, be- 
cause coming from %a>pig, gen. x^p^og : eveXrrtg makes 
eveXmdog, because coming from eXntg, gen. eXntdog : <ptX6- 
narptg makes fytXoTt&rptdog, because coming from irarptg, 
gen. Tcarpidog ; and so of others. 

Remark. But the following must be observed with regard to 
the compounds of iroXtg. When they refer to persons, they 
have in the genitive the Attic form idog ; as, aizolig, " one with- 
out a city or state" i. e., a banished man ; gen. anolidog. When, 
however, they are employed as epithets of cities, &c, they fol- 
low the inflexion of the simple itokig ; as, KaX?u7ro?ug f " beauti- 
ful city" gen. naXhcnoXeog. 



Idpig, " experienced: 



Singular. 



N. tdp-tg, 
G. tdp-log, 
D. tdp.tt, 



-log, 
-tt, 

-tV, 




-t, 

•tog, 



A. tdp-tv, 
V. tdp-t, 



N. tdp-te, 
G. Idp-totv, 



Dual, 
•te, 
-toiv, 



-te, 

-totv, 

-totv, 



D. idp-totv, 



-totv, 

-te, 

-Te, 



A. tdp-te, 
V. Idp-te, 



.te, 
•te. 



168 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



Plural. 

N. idp-teg, -leg, -la, 

G. ISp tcjv, -tov, -tcov, 

D. ldp-toi(v), -iOL(y)) Slol(v), 

A. 16 p- lag, -tag, -la, 

V. 15 p. leg, -leg, -la. 

ev%apig, " agreeable" 
Singular. 

N. ev%ap-ig, -eg, -i, 

G. evxdp-lrog, -frog, -Irog, 

D. evxdp-tTL, -In, -In, 

A. evx&p-lra, or > -Ira, or > 
hv, $ -iv, S 

V. ev)(ap-i, -i, -i. 

Dual. 

N. ev%ap-lTe, -Ire, -Ire, 

G. evxap-troiv, -trotv, -troiv, 

D. evxdp-lTOiv, -troiv, -troiv, 

A. evxdp-lre, -ire, -Ire, 

V. evxdp-lre, -Ire, -Ire. 

Plural. 

N. evxdp-lreg, ~iTeg, -Ira, 

G. evxap-truv, -trcjv, -trcov, 

D. evxdp-toi{y), -iai(v), -ioi(v), 

A. evxdp-lrag, -Irag, -Ira, 

V. ev%ap-lreg, -Ireg, -Ira. 



(9.) Termination in vf, neuter v. 

I. Under this head fall the compounds of Txr\xvg ; as, 
6i7T7]xvg, " of two cubits rpinrjxvg, " of three cubits," &c, 
the masculine and feminine of which are declined like 
ykvfcvg, and the neuter like yXvuv, except that the neuter 
plural contracts ea into t\ (like aarrj) : as, diixr]x^a, con- 
tracted SLTCTjXV' 

II. The compounds of ddxpv also belong here ; but it 
must be observed that they only inflect the accusative sin- 
gular after the third declension ; as, adaicpvv, neuter adaic- 
pv. The other cases are supplied by addftpvrog, gen. 



ADJECTIVES 0.F TWO TERMINATIONS, 169 

adajcpvrov, which follows the second declension. So, also, 
TToXvdaitpvg borrows from rroXvSdfcpvrog. 





dtnrjxvg, 


" of two cubits." 






Singular. 




N. 


SltthY'VC. 


-VC. 


'V, 


G. 


dtirrjx-eog, 


-eoc, 


-eoc, 


D. 




-SL, 


-ec, 


A. 


dimrix-vv, 


-vv, 


-v, 


V . 


dlnrjx-v 


-v, 


-v. 






Dual. 




N. 


dariiy-ee. 


-ee 9 


-££, 


G. 


diTTTjX-eOLV, 


•sow, 


-eoiv, 


D. 


dL7T7]X-£OLV, 


-eoiv, 


-eoiv, 


A. 


dL7TfjX'££i 


-££, 


-££, 


V . 


dtnrjx-££, 


-££, 


-££• 






Plural. 




N. 


dLTtr}x-etq, 


-eig, 


'% 


G. 


dmrjx-euv, 


-6G)V, 




D. 


dL7T7JX' eOC { V )9 


•eai(v), 




A. 


dinrix-eig, 


-eig, 




V. 


6tnfix-ei^ 


-etg, 





(10.) Termination in cop, neuter op. 
Adjectives in o)p, of two terminations, are declined like 
pr\TG)p. Thus, 

airdrop, "fatherless " 



Singular. 

N. dndr cjp, -op, -op, 

G. dndr-opog, ~°pog, -opog, 

D. dndr. ope, -ope, -opt, 

A. drrdr-opa, -opa, -op, 

V. dndr-op, -op, -op. 

Dual. 

N. dndr-ope, -ops, -ope, 

G. dnar-opotv, -opoiv, -opoiv, 

D. dnar-opotv, -opoiv, -opoiv, 

A. drrdr-ope, -ope, -ope, 

V. dndr-ope, -ope, -ope. 

P 



170 ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. 



Plural 



N. dndr-opeg, 
G. dnar-opcjv, 



-opeg, 



-opuv, 
-opoi(v), 



-opa, 

-6pG)V 9 



D. andT-opoi(v) 9 



-opoi(v), 



A. dndr-opag, 
V. dndr-opeg, 



-opag, 
-opeg, 



-opa, 
-opa. 



III. ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. 

I. Adjectives of one termination are used only for the 
masculine and feminine, since the idea expressed by these 
adjectives is such that it can only be conceived of in con. 
nection with persons, not with things. 

II. In the language of poetry, however, we sometimes 
find these same adjectives joined with neuters, in those 
cases where the neuter-form coincides with that of the 
masculine and feminine, namely, in the genitive and dative. 
Thus, we have, in Euripides, fiavidoiv Xvaorj/jtaaiv (Orest., 
264) ; and, again, ev Trevrjri GUfiart (EL, 375). — But in the 
other cases their place is supplied by other adjectives of 
similar signification ; as, XvoorjfiaTa fiaviKa. 

III. These adjectives only very seldom take a special 
form for the neuter ; as, enr]Xvg (Herod., viii., 73), from 
which we have the nominative plural neut. enrjXvda. 

IV. Some of these adjectives are found commonly joined 
with masculines, and others with feminines ; as, b \ioviag, 
6 edeXovrrjg, where we must supply dvrjp : —rj <pvydg, tj jitat- 
vdg, supply yvvrj : —r\ narpcg, supply yiy. 



As, 6 fioviag, genitive \loviov, " lonesome" — These ad- 
jectives appear merely as masculines, that is, in connection 
with substantives of the masculine gender. They are all 
paroxytons. 

(2.) Termination in ag, genitive avrog. 
As, dtcdfiag, genitive aKa\Lavrog, "unwearied" These 
are all paroxytons. 



(1.) Termination in ag, genitive ov. 



ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. 



171 



(3.) Termination in dg, genitive ddog. 
As, (pvydg, genitive (frvyddog, "fleeing" — These adjec- 
tives commonly appear in connection only with feminine 
substantives; as, ^rdyetpav noXiv 'EXXdda (Herod., vii., 
115) ; and, again, the substantive having been omitted, they 
appear as substantives themselves ; as, i\ 'EXXdg, " Greece" 
where yrj is properly understood ; 7j blacvdg, " the Manad" 
yvvrj being understood. Sometimes, however, they are 
found with substantives of the masculine and neuter gen. 
ders ; as, dpofidot, (3Xecpdpoig (Eurip., Orest., 835) : rig 
'EXXag 77 rig (3dp6apog, k. t. X. (Id., Phcen., 1512). 

(4.) Termination in ap, genitive apog. 
Of this termination, \Ldttap is the only instance ; of which, 
however, the feminine form fidicaipa is sometimes found. 

(5.) Termination in 7jg, genitive ov. 

As, edeXovTTjg, genitive edeXovrov, " voluntary." — These 
adjectives are commonly found only with substantives of 
the masculine gender. Some of them, however, are joined 
with feminine nouns, and then take a special feminine-form 
in ig, genitive idog ; as, evunvg, fern, evtimg, " beautiful." 
— As regards accentuation, they are paroxytons, with the 
exception of eOsXovrrjg and kfcovrrjg. 

(6.) Termination in 77c, genitive 7]rog. 
As, dpyrjg, genitive dpyrjrog, " white" Under this head 
fall all compounds in -$vr}g, -op^c, -PXrjg, .TtXr]g, and -fc(i7jg : 
and also some simple adjectives ; as, yv\ivi\g, " light-arm- 
ed ;" %£pvr\g, " needy ;" nXavng, " wandering ;" 7rev7]g, 
"poor," &c. From nevTjg comes a rare feminine-form 
TTevrjooa. 

(7.) Termination in rjv, genitive rjvog. 
As, aTrrfjv, genitive aTxrr\vog, " unfledged" No other 
example occurs. 



V72 ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. 



(8.) Termination in coc, genitive tirog. 
Under this head fall all compounds in -/3po)c, .yvcog, and 
-XP^g, and also anrtig, genitive anrtirog, " not falling" 

(9.) Termination in ig, genitive tdog. 
As, avdXmg, genitive avdhiudog, " weak" These ad- 
jectives regularly are employed only as feminines ; and, 
like those in dg, genitive ddog, they often have the noun 
with which they in reality agree understood, and thus 
appear as substantives ; as, rj irarpLg, " one's native land" 
yfj being understood. Occasionally, however, we find 
them employed as masculines. Thus, Homer joins dvdX- 
tcig with dnroXefjiog and tcafiog : and Pindar has avaXniv 
(pGjra. (Olymp., i., 81, ed. Diss.) 

(10.) Termination in vg, genitive vSog. 
As, verjXvg, genitive verjXvdog, " newly come" So, also, 
a few other compounds ; as, enrjXvg, ovyicXvg, &c. 

(11.) Termination in if, genitive yog, rcog, %oc. 
As, dpna^, genitive apnayog, " rapacious :" fjXti;, gen. 
rjXXicog, " of the same age :" [jlcovv^, fi&vvxog, " of uncloveii 
hoof" 

(12.) Termination in ip, genitive rcog. 

As, alyiXiip, genitive alytXtrrog, " high" " steep." Lit- 
erally, " destitute even of goafs :" i9wi/>, gen. ficonog , "flatter- 
ing :" dyXaco^p, gen. dyXaajirog, 64 bright-eyed." 

Finally, such as terminate in an unaltered substantive ; 
as, anacg, " childless :" fiatcpoxeip, " long-handed :" \xaK- 
pai(*)v, " long-living :" \iaK,pav%r\v " long-necked :" evpiv, 
" keen-scented :" Xevtcaoiug, " white-shield" &c. The 
declension of these adjectives follows that of the noun ; as, 
anatg, gen. a7T<udoc : fj,aKpox£i>p, gen. fiafcpoxetpog, &c. 

Remark 1. Words ending in rrjg, T7jp y rop, &c., which regu- 
larly are employed to indicate persons, are sometimes found as 
adjectives, and made to refer to things ; as, iivXirriq XiQaq, " a 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



173 



mill-stone ;" Ittvlttjc uproc, " baked bread." In the language of 
poetry, such adjectives were also employed as common ones, or 
of two terminations ; as, irafiSuTopa yalav : 'EpLvvvec TiuSvrfjpcg. 
With the word avroKpdrwp, this usage prevailed even in prose ; 
as, TroAif avTOKpdrcop : (iovTirj avroKpdrcjp. 

Remark 2. Several adjectives are found under double forms ; 
as, didfCTcop and didnropog : dloip and Slonoc : acTrjv and dcTrjvoe: 
Sctttv^ and dtnTvxog : <fcfv|f and dl£vyoc f &c., as in Latin we 
have opulens and opulentus ; pracox and prczcoquus ; hilaris and 
hilarus, &c. 



IV. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

I. The property expressed by an adjective can usually 
be attributed to more objects than one. Yet it is seldom 
found exactly to the same extent in one as in another ; but 
it is possessed by one in a usual degree, by another in a 
higher, or in a pre-eminent degree. 

II. Now if one and the same property be attributed to 
two different objects, and these be compared with each 
other in reference to the measure of this property, there 
arises a new form of adjective, namely, the comparative. 

III. But if a property exists in many objects, and one of 
them is to be distinguished as possessing this property in 
the greatest degree, this is also effected by a new form, 
called the superlative. 

IV. These two forms are called degrees of comparison ; 
and, for the sake of uniformity, a corresponding appellation 
has also been given to the simple form of the adjective, 
namely, the positive. Strictly speaking, however, the posi- 
tive is no degree of comparison, but merely the primitive 
form, on which the comparison is based. 

V. The simple superlative -form has a twofold use in both 
Greek and Latin. It expresses, namely, either the highest 
degree in comparison with some other object, or else the 
highest degree without any particular comparison. Thus, 
apLorog means either " the most excellent" or simply " very 

P 2 



174 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



excellent" In the former case, this is called by gramma- 
rians " the superlative of comparison ;" in the latter, " the 
absolute superlative." 

VI. In the Greek language, only adjectives and adverbs 
are susceptible of comparison ; not participles, except in a 
few rare cases, where the participle has the signification of 
an adjective ; as, eppcjuevog, 44 stout :" eppufieveorepog, 
" stouter :" kppc^iieveararog, " stoutest." 



V. FORMS OF COMPARISON. 

I. The Greek language has two forms to denote the two 
degrees of comparison, or comparative and superlative ; of 
which one is far more usual than the other. 

II. The ordinary form of comparison consists in append- 
ing the termination -repog, -repd, -repov for the compara- 
tive, and -rarog, -rdrrj, -rarov for the superlative. 

III. The rarer form of comparison consists in appending 
-c(ov, neuter -tov, or -wv, neuter -ov, for the comparative, and 
-lorog, -ioTT], -iotov for the superlative. 



I. ORDINARY FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COM- 
PARISON IN repog AND rarog. 

I. The degrees of comparison are formed from the posi- 
tive ; namely, the comparative by appending the termina- 
tion -repog, -repd, -repov ; and the superlative by appending 
-rarog, -rdrr], -rarov. 

II. These terminations are appended to the root or stem 
of the positive in the following manner : 

I. Adjectives in or. 

1. Most adjectives in og throw away the final g of the 
masculine singular, and append -repog, -repd, -repov, to the 
pure stem, in order to form the comparative, and -rarog, 
-rdrr], -rarov, to the same, in order to form the superlative. 

2. If the penult of the positive be short by nature, the o 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



175 



of the stem, which precedes the g that has been dropped, 
is changed into o> ; but if the penult of the positive be long 
by nature, or by position, then the o remains unchanged. 

3. In such positives as these a mute and liquid regular- 
ly make the preceding vowel long by position. Thus, 

With Short Penult. 

COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

ai-t-cj-repog, ai-L-dj-rarog, 

eftvpcj-Tepog, exvp-dj-rarog, 

KaOap-u-repog, fcadap-ti-Tarog, 

<f)avep-<D-T£pog, <f>avep-G)TaTog, 

evrovo)-T£pog^ evrovw-rarog. 



I. 

POSITIVE. 

agl-og, " worthy ? 
exvp og, " secure 
fcaddp-og, " pure 
<f>avep-6g, " manifest 
evrov.og, " brawny 



2. With Long Penult. 



POSITIVE. 

Kovcp'Og, " tight 
t(JXvp-6g, " strong ; n 
Xenr-og, " Mm 
ocfrodp-og, " vehement 
mitp-og, " toer ;" 



COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

fCovcj)-6-T£pog, Kov(j)'6-Tarog, 

loxvp-o-repog, loxvp-o-Tarog, 

XeiTT-o-TEpog, Xenr-o-rarog, 

G(podp-6-Tepog, Gcpodp-o-rarog, 

mfcp-o-repog, TTiKp-o-TaTog. 

Remark L This rule about the penult of the positive appears 
to have been caused by the conditions of the hexameter verse, 
the oldest measure in the Greek language, and by which that 
language itself was first formed. Thus, for example, a com- 
parative in orepoc, with the preceding syllable short, consequent- 
ly " ww , would not have been admissible into the hexameter. 
The same objection would apply to a comparative ending in 
tirlpog, with the preceding syllable long (except where another 
long syllable went before the latter), since the result would be 
a combination equally inadmissible. 

Remark 2. The Attic poets sometimes, on account of the 
exigencies of the verse, neglect the rule given above respecting 
the mute and liquid, and regard such penults as short. Thus, 
we have evrenvuTaroc from ev-envog, and dvaTzoTfiuTCLTog from 
SvcjTcoTfiog. So, also, in the Epic language, we sometimes find, 
for the sake of the metre, urepog and urarog, though a long 
syllable precedes ; as, KdKoZeLvurepog (Od., xx., 366) : and Mpu- 
raroc {Od., ii., 350) : b'i^vpuTepog (Od., v., 105), &c. 

Remark 3. The two adjectives nevog, " empty, 11 and orevof, 



176 FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



" narrow" take, according to the ancient grammarians, an «?, 
not 6> ; as, nevorepog, GTEvorepog. This was retained^ perhaps, 
from the Ionic forms netvog and aretvog. 

2. Adjectives in eog, contracted ovg. 
Adjectives in eog, contracted ovg, form their comparative 
and superlative regularly from the uncontracted positive, 
and then undergo contraction themselves. Thus, 
Positive, Troptyvp-eog, contracted Ttop§vp~ovg, 
Comparative, Tropcpvp-ecjrepog, " rcopftvp-tirepog, 
Superlative, uop(pvp-EG)rarog, " nopcpvp-wrarog. 

Adjectives in oog, contracted ovg. 
Adjectives in oog, contracted ovg, reject final og from the 
positive, append -earepog and -sorarog to what remains, and 
then contract os into ov ; as, 

Positive, arrXo-og, contracted anXovg, 

Comparative, anXo-eorepog, " anX-ovorepog, 

Superlative, anXo- sorarog, " anX-ovorarog. 

To this same head belong contracted adjectives of two 
terminations ; as, evvovg, evvovarepog, evvovararog. 

Remark. Adjectives in oog take, also, the open and uncon- 
tracted form in ourepog, otorarog ; as, dirXoi^repog (Thucyd.) : 
EvxpooraTog (Xen.). This form is, in reality, an Ionic one, and 
hence we find in Hippocrates, Evpo6rspog, SvoirvouTepog, ev- 
Tcvourepog, XevKoxpo&repog, &c. 

3. Adjectives in 7jg, genitive ov. 
Adjectives in rjg, genitive ov, of the first declension, 
shorten the termination rjg into ig, and append -repog and 
-rarog ; as, !cXenr7]g, " thievish" comparative kXsttt-lo-ts- 
pog, superlative hXetti -co '-rarog. 

Remark 1. The adjective vSptaTTjg, gen. -ov, has, however, for 
the sake of euphony, v&ptGTorepog, vSpio-rorarog. (Butimann, 
Ausf. Spr., § 66, Anm. 1.) Some, however, prefer referring 
these forms to vBpLarog. 

Remark 2. The adjective tpevdrjg, though forming -eog in the 
genitive, and, consequently, belonging to the third declensioo 
(vid. page 180), has tyevdiarepog, ipevdlorarog. 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



177 



II. EXCEPTIONS TO THE ORDINARY FORMATION OF 
THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

I. The following adjectives in aiog throw away og, and 
append -repog and -rarog to what remains, namely, yepatog, 
"old:" naXatog, "ancient:" nepalog, "beyond:" axoXalog, 
" at leisure." Thus, 

yepai-og, comparative yepai-repog, superlative yEpal-rarog, 
7raXac-6g> " ixaXai-TEpog, " TraXat-rarog, 
irEpahog, u TTEpac-TEpog, " nepai-rarog, 
O'Xp'kal-og, " oxo/tal-repog, " oxoXal-rarog. 

Remark. The adjectives iralatog and axoLaloq take, also, the 
ordinary form of comparison ; as, -xaAai6T?.pog, axoXaiorepog. 
(Xen.). 

II. The following adjectives in og, also, throw away the 
final og, and form, like the preceding, the comparative in 
-aCrepog, and the superlative in -alrarog, namely, Evdtog, 
"clear:" r\cvxog<> "quiet;" idiog, "private:" loog, " equal:" 
fieoog, " middle :" bpdptog, " early :" bipiog, " late :" npco- 
log j " at morn :" and (piXog, " dear." Thus, 

evdi-og, comparative evdi-atrepog, superlative Evdi-airarog, 



Tjovx-og, 


(< 


rjovx-aLTspog, 


ti 


TjovX-airarog, 


ldi-og, 


a 


Idt-alrepog, 


it 


Ldi-alrarog, 


to-og, 


a 


ia-alrepog, 


u 


la -alrarog, 


fjiso-og, 


a 


fiiea-atrepog, 


11 


pEO-atrarog, 


bpdpi-og, 


u 


dpdpi-a'iTEpog, 


u 


opOpt-atrarog 


bipt-og, 


a 


oifiL-atTEpog, 


61 


oxpi-airarog, 


7TpG)'i-og, 


ti 


TTpCJL- CLLTEpog, 


ii 


n put- alrarog, 


(j)iX.og, 


a 


(piX-aiTEpog, 


it 


cfrtX-alrarog. 



Remark 1. Sometimes, also, we find the common forms of 
comparison in the case of these adjectives ; as, Tjcvxcorepog, 
7]Gvx^>TaTog. (Plato.) 

Remark 2. The adjective 6llog is remarkable for several dif- 
ferent forms of comparison. The most common is (bilTepog, 
<j>lXraTog. The form given above, namely, (piAalrepog, §i\aL-a- 
roc, is frequently fonnd, however, among the Attics. A third 
one, (j>i?.o)Tepoc, ^iAwraroc, is more rare. Besides these three 



178 



F0RM3 OF COMPARISON. 



forms, we find, also, in the Attic poets, a superlative <bi%iarog 3 
just as in Homer we have a comparative tyikiuv.— The Dorians 
said <j>lvrepog f <j)lvrarog. 

Remark 3. The adjectives fieeog, " middle" and veog, "young" 
have each a peculiar, and, very probably, old form of the super* 
lative ; as, fiecrarog, vearog, but which are only used when the 
idea of a row or series is meant to be conveyed ; so that fiiaa- 
tog will mean the middle of a row, and vearog (Epic veiarog) the 
last of one ; whereas /xeaatrarog refers to the middle in gener- 
al, and veurarog has its original meaning of "young" &c. In 
prose, vtarog is only employed of the tones in music {viarog 
tydoyyog), and then the feminine undergoes contraction ; as, 
vrjrrjj " the lowest string" of an instrument. 

III. Two adjectives in og, namely, eppojfievog, " stout" 
and dtcpdrog, " unmixed" throw away final og 7 and append 
-eorepog, -eorarog, to what remains. Thus, 
eppufiev-og, comp. eppcjixev-eorepog, super, eppojfiev. eorarog, 
arepdr-og, <4 dtcpar-eorepog, " attpar-eorarog. 

Remark 1. So, also, the adjective aldolog has the superlative 
aidoieararog. This same form of comparison is also sometimes 
assumed by a<p6ovog, "abundant anovdalog, "zealous;" and 
aa/icvog, "well-pleased." Thus, u<p6ovog, utydov-iarepog, atydov- 
eararog, &c. The more common form, however, is in -urepog, 
-urarog, and hence from acfievog we have aGfievurepog also. 

Remark 2. Besides the adjectives mentioned in Remark 1, 
several others take -ecrepog, -eorarog, among the poets ; such as, 
ev&pog, "pure;" rjdv/nog, "sweet;" hmiredog, "level;" and, gen- 
erally speaking, contracted adjectives in ovg from eog. 

Remark 3. The form in eorepog, eararog, belongs regularly 
to adjectives in rig and uv of the third declension. 

IV. The following adjectives in og throw away final og, 
and append -iorepog, -lorarog, namely, XdXog, " talkative ;" 
fiovocbdyog, " eating alone ;" difiocfydyog, " dainty ;" and 
Trroy^og, "poor" Thus, 

XdXog, comp. XaX-larepog, sup. XaX-iorarog, 
fjiovocpdyog, " povocpay-Lorepog, " fiovocpay-iorarog, 
6\f)0(f)dyog, " d^po^ay-tarepog, " b^ofyayHOrarog, 
nro^xog, " nro)X'lorepog, " 7tro)x-^Tarog. 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



179 



Remark. The form in inrepog, iararog, belongs regularly, it 
will be remembered, to adjectives in 77c of the first declension, 
genitive ou, vid. p. 176. 



III. RARER FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COM- 
PARISON IN IG)V AND wv, &c. 

I. Some adjectives in vg throw away final vg, and ap- 
pend to what remains the termination -lojv (neuter tov) for 
the comparative, and -Lorog, hotti. -igtov, for the superlative. 

II. This formation always occurs in the case of rjdvg, 
among the Attic writers. Other adjectives in vg have it 
occasionally among the poets. Thus, rjdvg : comparative 
rjd-iG)v : superlative rjd-lorog. 

Remark 1. Among the Attic poets, for example, such in- 
stances occur as the following : Ppdx^'og, KpiGbiGToq, cj/aorof, 
&c. Others are found in the Epic language ; as, fiadluv (Tyr- 
taus) : padiOTog {Homer): (tpad'iuv (Hesiod) : 7rax'-uv (Aratus), 
&c. The ordinary form of adjectives in vg is in vrepog, vrarog. 
But rjdvg has this only in unattic writers. 

Remark 2. In the comparative ending luv, the 1 is short in 
the Epic writers, but always long with the Attics. The pas- 
sage in Euripides (SuppL, 1104), tcareixe x € L ?' L ' nctrpi <5' ovdev 
Tjdlov, is evidently corrupt. 

III. In some adjectives in vg, the 1 of the ending lcjv is 
rejected, and the last letter of the root, if d, #, k, or 
changes into aa (Attic tt). Thus, ra%vg (old form daxvg), 
comparative tclxlcjv, changed to ddooov, Attic Sdrroyv, 
superlative rdxiorog. So, eXaxvg, comparative sXax^v, 
changed to eXdoouv, Attic eXdrruv, superlative ekdx^Tog. 

Remark 1. The gg must here be regarded as a strengthen- 
ing of the Xi J ust as we have the verb Taoau from the radical 
form rayo. 

Remark 2. The form rax'iuv occurs only in later writers. 
The change of r into or, rather, the change from # of the root 
to r of the positive, will be found explained on page 33. 

Remark 3. Rarer forms under this head are ppaaauv, for 
fipaxiov, from fipaxvg. (&, X., 226) : pdaeuv, for /Sadtov, from 
PaOvg (Epicharm. ap. Etym. Mag.> p. 191, 8) : yXvGGG)v y for 



180 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



yTiVKLov, from ylvuvg (Aristoph. ap. Etym. Mag.) : KaGtiuv, for 
TTcixtuv, from Tcaxvg (Od., vi., 230), &c. 

IV. Some adjectives in pog throw away final pog, and 
then append -twv and -iorog, like adjectives in vg. These 
are, alaxpog, "base :" tyOpog, "hostile Kvdpog, "glorious ;" 
and, in the superlative only, fia/cpog, " long and olnrpog, 
" lamentable " Thus, 

aloxpog, comparative alax-i^v, superlative alo%-iGTog, 
exOpog, " &xO-i(*)v, " exO-torog, 

nvdpog, " icvd-LG)v 9 " nvd-iorog, 

oltcrpog, " # # # # # u oiKT-iOTog, 
fiaxpog, " # # # # # « firjft-iGTog. 

Remark 1. The comparative oUrtov never occurs, but in its 
place we have always oUrporepog. The adjective paKpog prop- 
erly belongs to the head of anomalous comparisons. It forms 
fidacrcov in the comparative, never /llclkiuv, and in the superla- 
tive firjKLGTog, poetic for (idniGTog. 

Remark 2. Besides the forms here given, and which are pre- 
ferred by the Attics, these adjectives are also found with the 
endings in -orepog and -oTarog ; as, for example, exOporarog, in 
Sophocles and Demosthenes. 

Remark 3. Other forms in tuv and tarog will be found under 
the head of Anomalous Comparison, immediately following. 



ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

General Rule. Adjectives of the Third Declension form 
their comparative and superlative by adding -repog and -ra- 
rog to the pure stem of the word, as it appears in the nom- 
inative singular neuter ; and this is done either without any 
previous insertion of a letter or a whole syllable, or else 
after such insertion. 

1. -repog and -rarog joined immediately to the pure Stem. 
The comparison-endings -repog and -rarog are joined im- 
mediately to the pure stem of the word, as it appears in the 
neuter, in the adjectives ending in vg, ela, v : rjg, neuter eg 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



181 



(genitive eog) ; ag, aiva, av ; and the solitary pdtcap, 44 Mess- 
ed:' Thus, 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

yXv ftvg, " sweet ;" N. (yXvtt~v)<, yXvnv-repog, yXvuv-rarog, 
dXr\Qr\g, 44 true f 44 (dXr]0-eg), dXTjOea-repog, dXrjOeo -rarog, 
\ieXag, a black 44 (iieX-av), \ieXdv-repog, \ieXdv -rarog, 
fidfcap, "blessed;" 44 (fidfc-ap), fiaadp-repog, fjiandp -rarog. 

Remark. The adjectives ijdvg, raxvg, and iroXvg are excepted 
from this, and take the form of comparison in cm and uv. 

2. A single letter or a whole syllable inserted before -repog 
and -rarog. 

The comparison-endings are affixed to the pure stem of 
the word immediately after the insertion of a single letter 
or a whole syllable. Thus, 

1. The compounds of %dpig insert cj ; as, 

eTTL^apig, gen. k7u%dpiT-og, "agreeable" 
Compar. emxap it ~g) -repog ; superl. emxapiT-A-Tarog. 

2. Adjectives in G)v, neuter ov (genitive -ovog), and tjv, 
neuter ev (genitive -evog), insert eg ; as, 

evdaijjiwv, neuter evdaifiov, "fortunate." 
Compar. evdaiiiov-eo-repog ; superl. evdaifiov-eo-rarog. 

rep?]v, neuter repev, 64 tender." 
Compar. repev-eo-repog ; superl. repsv-ea -rarog. 

3. Adjectives in etg, neut. ev, append -orepog and -orarog 
to the pure stem, as it appears in the neuter ; and hence v 
is rejected before a. (Page 36, Rule 3.) Thus, 

%aptei,g, neuter xapiev, 44 attractive" 
Compar. %apie-orepog ; superl. %apLe-orarog. 

4. Adjectives in £ insert, some eg, others eg ; as, 

d(f>r]Xi^, gen. dcprjXiK og, 44 elderly." 
Compar. d^rjXut-eo-repog ; superl. dcfujXiK-eG. rarog. 

aprra^, gen. aprray-og, 44 rapacious" 
Compar. dpnay-ia-repog ; superl. aprray-to -rarog. 

Remark. Xenophon has from fild% a comparative ft\ax.(dTe-. 
pog, and a superlative fiXaKtoraroc. (Mem., iii., 13, 4.— lb., iv.,< 

Q 



182 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



3, 40.) Buttmann, however ($ 66), proposes to read /3Aa/u/e<j- 

TEpQC) fihaKlKUTClTGC, from fihaKLKOC. 



IV. ANOMALOUS COMPARISON. 

I. Under the head of Anomalous Comparison two classes 
of forms are generally comprehended ; namely, 

1. Those which deviate from the rules already laid 
down ; and, 

2. Those whose positive has disappeared from the 
language ; or else which never had an actual positive, 
and which are, therefore, assigned to existing positives, 
to which they approximate in meaning in a greater or 
less degree. 

II. To this latter class the title Anomalous, though com- 
monly given, does not, in strictness, very closely apply; 
since, when several different forms of comparison are as- 
signed to one common positive, it must be evident that 
these forms are, in reality, marked by different shades of 
meaning. (Consult Remarks.) 

III. The usual arrangement of Anomalous Comparisons 
is as follows : 

POSITIVE. 

1. ayaOoc, "good" 



2. ko,koc, " bad," 

3. hclaSc, "handsome" 

4. (iky eivqc" painful " 

h.fiaKpoc, "long" 

6. fiiKpog, " small" ) 
EAaxvc {Homeric), \ 

7. oAtyoc, " little" 

8. ,uey a?, "great" 

9. ttoAvc, u much" 
10. padioe, u easy" 
I X . TTEivtJv, " ripe*'' 
12. TTLQV, " fat" 



COMPARATIVE. 

d/uetvuv, neut. ujielvov, > 
fizATEpoc {poetic), 

KpELGGUV, Att. KpELTTCJV, } 

(pEprepog {poetic), 

kclkIuv, \ 
Xnpuv, > 

7]GGUV, AttiC 7}TTWV, ) 

kclaaicjv, 

(ikyetvoTepoCj > 

uAyluv, S 

fiaKporepoc, ) 

fiuGccov {more poetic), 5 

fJLLKpOTEpOC, ) 

eauggcjv, Att. ea&ttcjv, S 

flElOV, 

ttaeiuv or ttaeov, 
paw, 
■ETTai-epos, 

lOTetiQC. 



SUPERLATIVE. 

apiGTog, 

ftsATlGTOC, 

j3ilTarog ( poetic), 

Kp&TlGTOe, 
AU)GTOC, 

<t>epTaToc,& ) 
QepiGToc, 5 P 1 ' 

K&KLGTOC, 

XELpiGTOC, 
* * * * * 

KOAAlGTOC, 

akyzivorcLToc, 
likyiGTOC, 

/LtaKpOTCLTOC, 
(Zr/KCGTOC, 

{itKporaroc, 

EAUXLGTOe, 
OALytGTOC, 
[lEytGTOg, 
7TAEIGTOC, 

paGToe, 

TTETmiTttTOC) 
KLQTd ToC. 



) 



FORMS OF COMPARISON 



183 



Remark 1. The regular forms ayad&repoc, ayaduraroc, belong 
to the later writers. Sophocles has irpo&epiGTepoc, -raroc. The 
poetic <pepi<7T0£ occurs in Plato, also, in the expression w (pipturs. 

Remark 2. In the Epic language and in the Dialects, the fol- 
lowing forms also occur : 

1. dyaOoc, compar. apetuv (dpeioTepoc, Theognis), Xotuv, %wre- 
poc (Ionic KpecGwv, Doric tcappuv), superlative HapTiaroc (Doric 
(3£vtigtoc). 

2. KCLKoc, KaKurepoc, x eL P° TS P°Ci X E P eL ^ TE P 0C ^ X € P £ ^ V (Doric 
Xepyuv), (Ionic ^gguv), superl. KaKcorarog, tjkigtoc. 

3. bXiyoc, bXi&v (Alexandrine), but vtzoXl^ovec (H., xviii., 519), 
fxeLGToc (Bion, v., 10). 

4. pntdioc (Ionic) ; compar. prjtrepoc (Ionic pntuv) : superl. fint- 
raroc and prj'iGroc (from a stem fait). 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANOMALOUS COMPARISONS. 

1. Although different forms of comparison are frequently assigned 
to one common positive, yet derivation often enables us to detect 
in many of them an actual difference of meaning. Thus, for ex- 
ample, apLGToc belongs to the same family with aperr), and both may 
be traced to a common root with 'kprjc, "Mars." Hence the origi- 
nal meaning of aptoroc is "bravest" that is, according to early no- 
tions, "best." — The forms koutigtoc and Kpelacruv may be traced to 
an Epic positive Kparvc, or to the noun fcpdroc, "strength;" and 
hence kpelggov and kp&tigtoc mean, originally, "stronger" and 
¥ strongest." — The positive of duelvov has been partially preserved 
for us in the Latin amoznus, and the primitive signification appears 
to have been "more pleasing" or "agreeable " as referring to exter- 
nal beauty. — The form pE^riuv evidently belongs to the same root 
with the Latin melior, unless we prefer connecting it with the San- 
scrit bal-a, "strength," the Gothic balths, and the old Saxon bald, 
"bold." — The poetic diprepoc, tyipraroc, Qipicroc, may readily be 
traced to <j>epu, and the primitive idea will be that of "vigorous" as 
referring to productive energy, like ferax and fertilis in Latin. 

2. The forms x^pw and t)ggdv carry with them, properly, the idea 
of "weakness." The former is, like x^PVC, to be traced to the term 
Xeip, "the hand" (i. e., "power"), and signifies, properly, " under the 
hand or power of another." — The forms ijacrov and tjkigtoc are to be 
deduced from qua, "weakly" "slightly" "in a small degree" — The 
Epic superlative-form t}klgtoc is employed by later writers, but not 



184 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



in Attic prose, except in the adverbial neuter-form ty/acra, in which 
it is of very frequent occurrence among the best Attic writers. 

3. The Homeric kXaxvc (k-hax-vc) is the Sanscrit lagh-u and Eng- 
lish light, with the euphonic e prefixed. — The form (ielov was origi- 
nally, according to Pott {Etymol. Forsch., vol. ii., p. 69), pvelov or 
fiweioV) from a positive pavvq, neuter /uivv, which we see appearing 
in the Latin minus. — The form juelfav (earlier fte&v) appears to 
have arisen from fiejluv, in the same way as bTJJ&v may have come 
from bXiyiuv. And with peC&v, jusfev, we may compare the Sanscrit 
mahijan. {Pott, Etymol. Forsch., vol. ii., p. 38, 602.) 

4. The comparison of irohvg appears to have arisen from the stem 
nXe, with the endings lov, torog. (Compare the Epic ttMec, accus. 
TrXeac.) The form ttXeov is shortened from ttXelov. The Attic 
writers commonly employ the longer form ttTleicjv in prose ; and in 
the contracted cases they do this regularly ; as, rbv kIeim, nte'iovc, 
ra ttIelu. In the neuter singular, on the other hand, and especially 
in an adverbial signification, they employ, for the most part, ttXeov, 

5. Herodotus and the Dorians contract so, in the cases of 7t?Jg)v, 
into ev ; as, neuter, ixXevv for 7t1eov : so, ttXevvsc, kTievvov, &c., for 
TtTiEovEe, 7tXe6vcjv, &c. 

6. The positive moe, to iriotEpoc, Tziorarog, is a rare poetic form. 
(Pind., Pyth., iv., 99.— Epich., p. 74.— Orph., Arg., 508.) 



V. OTHER PECULIARITIES OF COMPARISON. 

I. In many adjectives in Greek, as in other languages, 
the formation of a comparative and superlative from the 
root of the positive was not usual, but the gradation of ideas 
was expressed by adding the adverbial forms p,aXXov, 
" more" and fidXiora, " most." These adverbs are placed 
either before or after the positive. Thus, rporog, " vulner- 
able fiaXXov rporog, " more vulnerable fidXtara rpd)- 
rog, "most vulnerable" — dvTjrog, "mortal;" tivrjTdg fi&X- 
Xov, "more mortal;" dv7]rog fidXiara, "most mortal." 

II. A few instances occur where, to express a still high- 
er gradation of an idea, an existing degree or form of com- 
parison becomes the positive or basis to a new formation. 
Thus, eaxarog, " last ;" eo%aTG)repQg, " more extreme ;" 
eoxaruraTog, " last of all" — nptirog , "first ;", Ttp&TLOrog; 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



185 



"first of all" or " the very first" — Trporepalog, 44 before 
Trporepacrepog, " long before," &c. 

III. From fiovog we find, in the poets, and even in the 
prose writers also, the superlative fiovGjrarog, 44 the one 
only person" " one above all others ;" and from avrog, in a 
comic sense, avrorepog in Epicharmns (p. 2), and avTora- 
rog, 44 his very self" in Aristophanes (Pint., 83). With this 
last we may compare the " ipsissimus" of Plautus (Tritium., 
iv, 2). 

IV. Several adjectives, which carry with them the idea 
of an arrangement, succession, or series, are found only un- 
der the form of comparatives, since the idea implied by 
them has reference merely to comparison, and is not to be 
taken absolutely. These have, for the most part, an ad- 
verb or preposition, indicative of place, for their stem. 
Thus, 

From ttXtjolov, "near" (in Homer, 7rXr(atog), we have izXrj- 
aiacrepog or nXrjoisoTepog, and 7xXr\aiaiTarog or 
rrXrjGieoTaTog. 

u ayxpv, "near" ayxoTeprf (Herod.). 

" ayx 1 "* " near," aooov, ayxiorog. 

u npooo), 44 onward," npoo&repog, TcpoouraTog. 

u TTpo, 44 before," nporspog, rrpojTog (contracted from 
npoarog), Doric ixparog. 

" avd), 44 upward," dvdjrepog, avtitrarog. 

" vnep, 44 above," vrrsprepog, vrTsprarog, poetic vrrarog. 

" vno, " under," varepog, vararog, 

44 e%, 44 out of," eaxarog, " the last," 44 the outermost" 

V. The Greek language forms comparisons also from 
substantives. Thus, 

fiaoiXevg," a king ;" f3a<nXevrepog, 44 more kingly," 
dovXog, "a slave ;" dovXorepog, 44 more slavish," 
kvcov, 44 a dog ;" tivvrspog, 44 more impudent," 
Kspdog, 44 gain ;" tcepdtuv, " more advantageous" &e 6 

Q2 



186 



FORMS OF COMPARISON. 



VI. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 1 

I. In the comparison of adverbs, it is important to draw 
a distinction between those which first become adverbs by 
derivation from adjectives, and those which were adverbs 
originally. 

II. Adverbs formed or derived from adjectives have regu- 
larly no special adverbial termination, but employ in the 
comparative the neuter singular, and in the superlative the 
neuter plural of the corresponding forms of the adjective. 
Thus, 

COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

ootytig (from (To^df), ocxpurepov, GoQurara, 
aafyug (from Gafyrjg), Ga^earepov, GacpeGrara, 
ijdeug (from ydvg), qdiov, rjOiara^ 
Xapiivrug (from x a pt* l c)i x a P l ^ aTe P ov -> x a P L ? (TTaTa > 
evdaifiSvug (from evSai/xuv), evdaiiioveGTepov, evdaifiovecTaTCty 
aiaxp^g (from aiGxpog), alaxlov, aiGxiGra, 
raxeug (from raxvg), daGGov, -fraTTov, T&xioTa. 

III. Sometimes, however, the termination of the posi- 
tive remains also in the comparative ; as, %aA€7T65f, %aAe- 
nurepug : dypiiog, dyptG)repG)g : dXrjOtig, dXrjdeGrepog : 

$lk0Tlfl(*)g, (plXoTljbLOTEpteS, <fec. 

Remark. The use, however, of the adverbial form of the 
superlative in cjg> among the classic writers, is not sufficiently 
established. (Consult Buttmann, Ausf. Spr., vol. ii., § 115, 6.) 

IV. All primitive adverbs in o>, such as avej, Ka~G), ego), 
g(76), <fec, regularly retain this ending in comparison also ; 
as, 

avo), compar. avorepa), superl. dvordro), 
k&tg), u KaroyrepG), " Karcordrco^ 
2£g), " ei;G)T£pG), " e^o)rdr(*) 9 
egg), " eacjrepo), " eacjrdrG). 

V. In the same way are compared most other primitive 
adverbs ; as, 

dyxov, compar. dyxorepd), superl. dyxordro), 
irepd, " TrepairepG), (no superlative), 

L On the formation, &c, of adverbs, consult page 387, scqq. 



NUMERALS. 



187 





compar. rrj^orepco, 


super!. 






a 




a 




evdov, 


a 


C 1/UfJTtUUJ) 


a 




p,atcpdv, 


a 


fJLCifCpOTEpOV, 


u 


p^aicpoTCLTG) and / 












E'yyvc. 


a 


eyyvTspo), 








it 


eyyvrepov. 








« 


eyylov, 


1 << 


eyyiara, ) 




a 


Trporepo), 




(no superlative), 


ano, 


M 


dlTOTEpG), 


<< 


d7roTdrG.>. 



Remark 1. The adverbs frpcj?, " early" and 6^e, "late" form 
their comparison, according to the analogy of adverbs derived 
from adjectives, from the neuter of the adjectives derived from 
them, namely, rrpdloc and 6i//£of : as, Ttpu'iacTepov or izpuaLTepov, 
-Tara : oijjialrepov, -rara. 

Remark 2. The adverbs /ud?ia, ayxh and tyyvc, also form their 
comparison according to the analogy of adverbs derived from 
adjectives. Thus, fiuTia, fiaXkov, pdXiora : uyxt, dacrov, uyxiora, 
and eyyiov, eyyiara. The last two forms, namely, lyytov, h/yia- 
ra, though old, are not Attic. The forms ayxi, avoov, uyxtora, 
are almost entirely poetic, and only used in prose in certain ex- 
pressions ; as, uyxicrra yevovg, "very nearly related.'' 1 



NUMERALS. 

I. Numerals are divided into two great classes, viz., Fnn- 
dammlal (called also Cardinal) and Derivative Numerals. 

II. Cardinal Numerals indicate simply a particular num- 
ber, and answer to the question " How many T as, elg, 
" one 6vo, " two rpelg, " three" 

III. Derivative Numerals indicate, also, a particular num- 
ber, but one existing at the time in a certain relation ; as, 
Tpirog, " third detcarog, " tenth rptg, " three times ;" 
detcdfcig, " ten times." 

IV. The first four of the cardinal numbers, and all the 
round numbers of the same class from 200 (dtaitQOLOi) to 
10,000 ([ivpiot), with their compounds, have the inflection 



188 



NUMERALS* 



of adjectives ; all the others, from irevre, "five" to e/cardv 
evsvrjfcovra teal kvvea, " one hundred and ninety-nine" inclu- 
sive, are not susceptible of declension. 

V. The tens of thousands after \ivpioi are expressed by 
numeral adverbs in composition with \ivpioi, and are all de- 
clined like this last ; as, dtg^vpLOL, —at, —a, " twenty thou- 
sand ;" Tpig\ivpioi, —at* —a, "thirty thousand;" deicafag[j,v- 
pioi, -at, -a, " one hundred thousand" 

VI. Derivative Numerals are divided into the following 
classes : 

Ordinal numbers, answering to the question " Of what 
rank or place (in a series) ?" as, irpajrog, "first Sevrepog, 
u second f rpirog, " third" &c. And these are all declined 
like adjectives of three terminations, ending in og, rj, ov, 
except Sevrepog, a, ov, which ends in og, a, ov. 

Multiplicatives, which answer to the question " How many 
fold 1" These are all compounds of nXoog, and adjectives 
of three terminations, dog, 6rj, 6ov, contracted ovg, r\, ovv : 
as, dinXovg, " twofold ;" rparXovg, u threefold" &c. 

Numeral Adverbs, which answer to the question "How 
often ?" These, with the exception of the first three, end 
in dfag, which is appended to the numeral after the latter 
has thrown away its final vowel ; as, rerpdiiig, "four times ;" 
uevrdiCLg, "five times;" elttoodKig, "twenty times" &c. 

Proportionals, which answer to the question " How many 
times more ?" These are compounds, with the threefold 
termination -nXaoiog, -nXaoid, —rrXdoiov ; as, darXdoiog, 
" double ;" Tpi-nXdoiog, " triple," &c. 

VII. Substantive numerals, which express the abstract 
idea of the number, are here to be mentioned as occupying 
a class by themselves ; though, strictly speaking, they be- 
long to the derivative numerals : these are formed, with the 
exception of the first, from the cardinal number, with the 
ending dg, genitive ddog ; as, jiovdg (from \iovog, " alone"), 
" unity ;" Svdg, " duality ;" rptdg, " a triad," &c. 



NUMERALS. 



189 



NUMERAL SIGNS. 



I. For marks of number the Greeks employ the 24 let- 
ters of their alphabet ; but, to make the number more com- 
plete, they introduce also three ancient letters, namely; 
one after e, called Bav, or Digamma, and also 'KrcLarjfiov, 
but more commonly Sri, and answering to the number 6 : 
a second, called Korcna, which is the mark for 90 : and a 
third, called Safini, which answers to 900. 

II. The mark of eTTtarjfiov, or orl, is g : that of norma is 
cj" : and that of aa\.ird is 3). 

Remark 1. The first nine letters, from a to including art, 
denote units : the succeeding nine, including kottttci, answer to 
the tens : and the last nine, including aa/Lini, to the hundreds. 

Remark 2. With respect to the three ancient letters men- 
tioned above, consult page 2, Remark 5. The original mark 
for the fconira was 9, whence comes the Latin Q. (Knight, 
Greek Alph., p. 5.) The aayn:l is, no doubt, to be traced back in 
name to the old appellation for the letter cr, namely, aav, and 
appears to have been formed from the union of this letter with 
a 7r, the early form of the Greek S having been C. Buttmann 
thinks that the earlier name of the numeral in question was 
2av, and that 2a//7T£ came in as an appellation at a later period. 

III. When the letters are employed to denote numbers, a 
mark resembling an accent is placed over them ; but, to 
designate the thousands, the same mark is placed below. 
Thus, a is one, but a is one thousand. So, ic is twenty, but 
¥- is twenty thousand. 

IV. These marks above and below the letters are not, 
however, expressed in the case of every letter, when we 
have several letters placed side by side, and indicating a se- 
ries of numbers ; but only over or below the last of the se- 
ries. Thus, we write v6%6' for 54,602 ; and aufid' for 1844. 

V. The following combinations may serve as examples 
of the Greek system of notation : 



CLVLE 



1415 

9265 
4589 



tcacpd 
pveoy' 



2846 
21,501 
155,203 
89,004 




190 



NUMERALS. 



VI. In place of this system of notation, the Athenians 
adopted the following, which is far more striking to the eye : 

I, 1, is the mark of unity, being the first letter of log, 

old form for slg. 

II, 2A 

III, 3, > express the other numbers below 5. 

mi, 4, ) 

IT, 5, is the initial letter of Hevre, "five" 
A, 10, " " Mfca. 

H, 100, " u Hetcarov, old form for knarov. 

X, 1000, " " XiXm. 

M, 10000, " " Mvpioc. 

The numbers between these are denoted partly by the 
combination of the above marks ; as, III for 6 ; UII for 7 ; 
AI for 1 1 ; Ml for 12 ; AA for 20 ; AAI for 21 ; AAAIIIIII 
for 39 ; and partly by the multiplication of A, H, X, M, into 
II, or 5, these marks being placed within the II, to denote 
such multiplication. Thus, 

EI for ttevt&kls 6eica, or 50. 

]A[A =60. 

M =500. 

M =5000. 

]k| = 50000. 

XXX]H[H]A[ = 3650. 

XHHHHAAAAIIII = 1844. 

Remark 1. This manner of notation is to be particularly no- 
ticed, since it has been preserved in many important Attic in- 
scriptions. Consult, on this subject, the remarks of Rose, In- 
script. Grac. Vet. Prolegom., p. 11, seq. 

Remark 2. For an account of the arithmetic of the Greeks, 
consult Delambre, Histoire de V Astronomic Ancienne, vol. ii., p. 3, 
seqq. 



LIST OF CARDINALS AND ORDINALS. 

CARDINALS. ORDINALS. 

1 a! elcj juia, ev, one. 7rp£rof, 77, ov, primus, a, urn. 

2 /?' 6vo, two. devrepoc, d, ov, secundus, a, um. 

3 Y T P £ k, rpia, three. rpfroc, rj, ov, tertius, a, urn, 

4 6' reTTapec, a, or riaoap. rhaproq, n, ov. 

5 e' TcivTE. irifiKToc, n, ov. 

6 <? ££. Iktoc, tj, ov. 

7 f iirrd. i66oiuog } n, ov. 



NUMERALS. 





CARDINALS. 


ORDINALS. 


8 tf 




oydoog, tj, ov. 


9 d' 




Ivvarog, tj, ov. 


10 tf 


(5e/ca. 


dstcarog, tj, ov. 


11 ta' 


ivSeica. 


kvdsnaTog, tj, ov. 


12 'tp! 




dudsKarog, 7], ov. 


13 iy' 


Tpt£KatdeKa. 


TpigKatSiKarog, tj, ov. 


14 x<5' 


reTTapecKaldeica, or recff. 


, TETTapanatdEKaTos, tj, ov. 


15 ie' 


TTEVTeKaideica. 


TzevTEKatdEKaToc, tj, ov. 


16 < 


kKnaideKa. 


EKKatdiicaTog, tj, ov. 


17 


EKTaKaldeKa. 


ETrraKatdEKaroc, tj, ov. 


18 


OKTOKaidetca. 


OKTUKaidEKarog, tj, ov. 


19 


evveaKaldefca. 


kvvsatcatdEKaTor, tj, ov. 


20 ac' 


eIkogi(v). 


EtKOGTOg, TJ, ov. 


21 *a' 


uaoGiv slg, /z/a, &V. 


ElKOGTOg TCp&TOg. 


30 V 


rptaK0VTa(d). 


TptdtCOGTOC, TJ, OV. 


40 


TeTTdpaKovra, or rcao". 


TETTapaKOGTOg, TJ, ov. 


50 j/' 




TZEVTTJKOGTOg, TJ, OV. 


60 f 


k^TjKOvra. 


E^TJKOGTOg, TJ, OV. 


70 o' 


iSdofirjuovTa. 


ESSoflTJKOGTOC, TJ, OV. 


80 :r' 


by607]K0VTCL. 


bydorjKOGTog, tj, ov. 


90 5 


EVEvfjKovra. 


EVEVTJKOGTOg, TJ, OV. 


100 p' 


EKCLTOV. 


EKaroGTog, tj, ov. 


200 <r' 


StdKOGtoi, at, a. 


diatCOGCOGTOC, TJ, ov. 


300 r' 


rptdaoGiot, at, a. 


TptaKOGtOGTOC, TJ, ov. 


400 v' 


rerpaKOGLot, at, a. 


TETpaKOGlOGTOg, TJ, OV. 


500 f 


wEvranoGtot, at, a. 


TTEVTafCOGtOGTOg, TJ, OV. 


600 


kZanoatot, at y a. 


k^aKOGtOGTOQ, TJ, OV. 


700 <f 


ETtTaKoatot, at, a. 


ETZTaKOGlOGTOC, TJ, OV. 


800 


bfcraKOGtoi, at, a. 


OKTaKOGtOGTOq, TJ, OV. 


900 ^ 


EvvaKOGiot, at, a. 


EVVaKOGtOGTOg, TJ, OV. 


1000 ,a 


xVKtot, at, a. 


XtktoGToq, TJ, OV. 


2000 ,|3 


digx&iot, at, a. 


dtgxthtOGTog, tj, 6v. 


3000 ,y 


rptgxtktoi, at, a. 


TptgxtkioGTog, tj, ov. 


4000 ,c* 


TETpaKigx&tot, at, a. 


TErpaKtgxtTitoGTog, tj, ov. 


5000 ,e 


irsvraKtgxt^tot, a h a - 


ITEVTaKLGXtTilOGTOg, TJ, ov. 


6000 ,r 


E%aKtgxthtot, a h <*• 


E^aKtgxtktoGTog, tj, ov. 


7000 £ 


ETZTaKtSX'thlOly O-h 


E^TaKtgxtktoGrog, tj, ov. 


8000 , V 


oKTaKtgx'tTitot, at, a. 


oKTaKtgxthtoGTog, tj, ov. 


9000 ,0 


kvvaKtgx't\tot, at, a. 


kwaKtgxi^toGTog, tj, ov. 


10,000 ,< 


fivptot, at, a. 


fivptoGTog, tj, ov. 


20,000 ,* 


Stgjivptot, at, a. 


dig/LtvptoGTog, tj, ov. 


100,000 ,o 


tieKattigfivptot, at, a. 


SeKaKtgfivptoGrogy Tj t ov. 



192 



NUMERALS. 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE NUMERALS. 

I. In compound numbers it is more usual for the smaller number 
with kcu to precede the greater ; as, rpEtc nal elkogi, " three-and- 
twenty;" ttevte Kal rpiaKOvra, " five- and- thirty." 

II. Often, however, the greater number precedes the smaller with- 
out any connecting Kal ; as, eIkogl ttevte, twenty-jive." Sometimes, 
though much more rarely, a Kal is inserted ; as, eIkogl Kal ttevte. 

III. So, also, in the more complicated numbers, the several parts 
are commonly united in such a manner as to proceed from the less 
to the greater ; as, rirrapa nal E66op.rjKovTa Kal kvvaKOGia kcu Tpic- 
x'i?iia teal ?%atag}ivpia TaTiavTa, " sixty -three thousand nine hundred and 
seventy-four talents." 

IV. The rule with regard to the ordinal numbers is the same as 
in the case of the cardinal ones, namely, the smaller one generally 
precedes the greater, with Kat intervening ; as, irefinrdc Kal eikogtoc, 
" twenty-fifth ;" less frequently, eIkogtoc tte/^tttoc. 

V. In place of the conjunction Kal, the preposition ettl is some- 
times employed to express the addition or combination of numbers, 
and the dative case is made to follow the preposition, where this 
case can be expressed by the numeral. On these occasions the 
smaller number precedes ; as, ttevte ettI eIkogl, " five upon or added 
to twenty," i. e., twenty -five ; tt£/j,tttoc knl sIkogtu, "a fifth upon or 
added to a twentieth," i. e., twenty-fifth. 

VI. For the greater numbers a numeral substantive is frequently 
used with the requisite cardinal number; as, dsKa fivpcddEc, 100,000; 

TplSX^ 1 ' 01 Kai KEVTE fiVpL&SEC, 53,000. 

VII. In the case of tens, compounded with 8 or 9, the definition 
is often given by subtraction ; as, Tpi&Kovra Svocv deovrotv or Seov- 
ra, 28 ; by^orjKovra Evbg Seovtoc, 79 : in other words, " thirty, two be- 
ing wanting, or wanting two" and " eighty, one being wanting." If a 
substantive of the feminine gender be referred to, then this gender 
must be employed ; as, vtjec \iiac OEovaai eIkogl, " twenty ships want- 
ing one" i. e., 19 ships, &c. 

VIII. The Latin distributives are expressed in Greek by com- 
pounding the cardinal numbers with gvv ; as, gvvSvo, " two by two ;" 
GvvrpEtc, " three by three" &c. Occasionally the prepositions Kara, 
dvd, &c, are employed. Sometimes, however, the addition of gvv 
merely serves to express " together ;" as in Plato (Hipp. Maj., p. 
282, E.), V dllovc gvvSvo, " than any two (sophists) together." 

IX. In order to express half or fractional numbers in money, 
measures, and weights, the Greeks used words compounded of the 



NUMERALS. 



193 



name of the sum, measure, or weight (namely, pLva> b6olog, rakavrov, 
X<>og, &c.), with the adjective termination ov, tov, alov, and yfii, 
"half" and placed before them the ordinal number of which the 
half is taken. Thus, riraprov fyiTuhavrov, " 3| talents" i. e., "the 
first a talent, the second a talent, the third a talent, the fourth a half 
talent." So, also, rpirov rifitjivalov, " 2£ mince:" eSdofiov TjiitSpaxfioVy 
" 6^- drachma ;" tte [itttov ijjiixoiv'uaov, " 4£ choenices," &c. 

X. From the foregoing, however, we must carefully distinguish 
such phrases as the following : rpla 7/fiird?>.avra, " \\ talents" i. e., 
three half talents : 7revTe rifiifivala, " 2? mince" &c. 

XL From the ordinal numbers are derived, 1. Numerals in -aiog, 
which commonly answer to the question " On what day 1" ; as, rpi- 
ratof, " on the third, day ;" deKaratoc, "on the tenth day." 2. Multiple 
numbers in -tydoiog (besides the multiplicatives already mentioned in 
-izhovg) : as, dupaGtoc, "twofold :" rpifydoioc, "threefold" &c. 



DECLENSION OF THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. 
elg, fita, ev, " one" 
Singular. 
N. elg, \iia, ev, 
G. evog, (Mag, evog, 
D. eve, fita, evi, 
A. eva, fjLtav, ev. 

dvo, " two." 



Dual. 

N. dvo and dvo), 
G. dvolv and dvelv, 
D. dvolv, 
A. dvo and dvo). 



Plural. 
N. (wanting), 
G. 6vC)v, 
D. dvai(v), 
A. (wanting). 



N. rpelg, 



G. 
D. 



rpicjv, 
rpioi{y), 



A. rpelg, 



N. rerrapeg, 

G. T£T~dpG)V, 

D. rerrapat(y), 

A. rerrapag, 



rpelg, " three" 
Plural, 
rpelg, 

TplG)V, 

rptal(v), 
rpelg, 

rerrapeg, "four? 
Plural, 
rerrapeg, 
rerrdpojv, 
rerrapat[v), 
rerrapag, 
R 



rpta, 
rpttiv, 
rpioi(y), 
rpta. 



rerrapa, 
rerrdpojv, 
rerrapai(v), 
rerrapa. 



194 



NUMERALS. 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. 



Remark 1. Hesiod (Theog., 145) lengthens elc into ieig. An 
Epic collateral form of /nia is la, gen. if/c : dat. iy : accus. lav. 
Of the masculine of this same form we have only i£> for hi (II., 
vi., 422).— For efc Theocritus (xi., 33) has fo. 

Remark 2. From the composition of this numeral with ovde 
and finde arise the negative adjectives ovdeig and firjdetc, which 
are declined in the same manner ; as, 



Remark 3. The later Greek writers, as, for example, Aris- 
totle, wrote ovdeic, findeig, neuter ovdev, firjdev, but leaving the 
feminine unaltered ; as, ovde/xia, &c. These forms, however, 
are, in reality, old ones, since they occur also in iEolic Greek. 
(Eustath., ad Od., p. 1841.) They are commonly supposed to 
come from ovre and jurjTe (Matthice, § 137), but Kuhner consid- 
ers them the result of a vicious mode of pronunciation, by which 
the middle mute d changes into an aspirate before the rough 
breathing. Compare bd' f Ep/^f, for 6d' 'Ep/%, in an Attic in- 
scription given by Bockh (i., n. 12). 

Remark 4. Ovdeic and (indeic are often separated, and writ- 
ten ovde elc and finde elc, &c. ; and this separation increases 
the negative signification. Thus, ovde elc, "not even one;" 
ovd' ixp hoc, "not even by one." 

Remark 5. The numeral elc, from its very nature, can have 
no plural ; but ovdeic and findeic have ovdevec and undevec, in the 
sense of u insignificant" " of no value." 



Remark 1. Strictly speaking, the dual-form is dvu, and it oc- 
curs so in Homer. The Attics, however, always have dvo. 
(Porson, ad Eurip., Orest., 1550.) In Homer and Herodotus it 
is often indeclinable. Avocv is the form for the genitive and 
dative : dvelv is more rare, and is used only in the genitive. 
At the present day, however, dvelv is excluded from the best 
editions of good Attic writers ; as, Eur., EL, 536 ; Thucyd., i., 
20 (vid. Ellendt, Lex. Soph., s. v. Svo, sub fin.). 

Remark 2. The genitive plural dv&v is unattic. According 



Elc. 



N. ovdeic, 
G. ovdevoc, 
D. ovdevi, 
A. ovdiva, 




ovdevi, 
ovdev. 



ovdev, 
ovdevoc, 



Avo. 



NUMERALS. 



195 



to Buttmann, it belongs only to the Ionians, and its being writ- 
ten here and there with subscript t, as if it were for dvolv, is a 
mere refinement on the part of the grammarians. (Ausf. Spr., 
vol. i., p. 282, n.) — The dative 6vat is found only in Thucydides 
(viii., 101), and no where else in the old Attic writers. For 
6vgl the Ionians and the unattic writers have dvocct, formed 
after the second declension. 

Remark 3. y A^w accords, in great measure, with dvu. In 
the old poets it is frequently indeclinable ; otherwise, apfotv is 
used in the genitive and dative. 

Tpelg &nd rerrapeg. 

Remark 1. The dative rpwlat is of very rare occurrence. 
(Hipponax, ap. Schol. Lycophr., 1165.) 

Remark 2. For Terrapeg, rirrapa^ the less Attic form is ria- 
uapecy reooapa. The Ionians for recaapeg said rhaepeg : the 
Dorians, rerropeg or reropeg : and an old Epic, and likewise 
^Eolic form, is nlcvpeg, which last is akin to the Oscan petur. 
For the dative rerrapffi we have an Epic form Terpaat, which 
also appears in later prose. 



NUMERAL 

1 anal;, " once" 

2 die, " twice " 

3 rptc, " thrice," &c. 

4 rerpdieig, 

5 TTSvrdKtg, 

6 k%dnic, 

7 enrd/ctc, 

8 OKTaKlC, 

9 evvedfcic or evvduc, 

10 deitdiue, 

11 kvdendiae, 

12 doddeftdfac, 

13 Tpictcaideicdicic, 

14 TSTTapeeicaidsicdicig, 

15 TTevrefcacdefcatcCg, 

16 etttccudefcdiac, 

17 eTTTcucatdefcdfcig, 



ADVEBS. 

18 diCTCJKaiSefcdfag, 

19 evveafccudeicdfctc, 

20 eifcoaaKig, 

30 TptaKovrdfcig, 
40 rerrapaKovrdicic, 
50 TrevTTjfcovTdfuc;, 
60 e^KovraKic, 
70 eddofjLTjKovrdKi^ 
80 oydoTjfcovrdfcic, 
90 evvevTjfcovTdtcig, 
100 efcarovrdtcic, 
200 diaitoGidiiie, 
300 rpiarcooidfctc, 
1000 ^Am/af, 
2000 dicxikidicic, 
10,000 (ivpidfctc, 
20,000 dcgfivpidicic. 



NUMERALS. 



MULTIPLICATIVES. 



1 dnXovg, 


" simple. 11 


2 duTzXovg, 


" twofold: 1 


3 rpinXovg, 


"threefold." 


4 rerpanXovg, 


"fourfold: 1 


5 nevranXovg, 


"fivefold. 11 


6 ei-anXovg, 


" sixfold. 11 


7 enranXovg, 


" sevenfold. 11 


8 6#Ta7rAoi;£, 


" eightfold. 11 


9 kvvairXovg, 


" ninefold. 11 


10 Sevan Xovg, 


" tenfold. 11 


100 eicarovranXovg, 


" one hundredfold. 11 


1,000 %iXia,TrXovg, 


" one thousandfold. 11 


10,000 pvpianXovg, 


" ten thousandfold. 11 


PROPORTIONALS. 


2 dcnXdoiog, 


u twice as much, 11 


3 rpinXdoiog, 


" thrice as much" 


4 TerpaTrXaGiog, 




5 TTevraTrXdowg, 




6 eganXdoiog, 




7 knTanXdoLog, 




8 dfCTanAAoiog, 




9 evvanXdoLog, 




10 defcanXdaiog, 





100 kKarovranXdaiog, 
1000 %£/Uo7r/Lacr£0£, 
10,000 fivpionXdoiog. 



SUBSTANTIVE NUMERALS. 

1 fxovdg (more rarely evdg), " unity 11 

2 (5va^, " duality" 

3 rptdg, " the number three" &c. 

4 rerpdg, 

5 ixevrdg and TTefinrdg, 



PRONOUNS. 



197 



6 egdg, 

7 enrdg and eddofidg, 

8 dydodg, 

9 evvedg, 
10 de/cdg, 
20 eltcdg, 
30 rpiditdg, 



40 rerrapaKOvrdg, 
50 irevrrjKovrdg, 
100 kfcarovrdg, 
1,000 ;^/Uac, 
10,000 pvpidg, 
20,000 pvpiddeg. 



PRONOUNS. 

All pronouns serve to supply the place of a noun; but, 
at the same time, they give different relations of the sub- 
stantives which they represent. According to these rela- 
tions so expressed by them, they are divided into the fol- 
lowing classes : 

1. Personal pronouns, which express the simple idea of 
person, and directly represent the same. These are, 

ey<6, " J." 
ov, " thou." 

ov, " of him" " of himself" &c. 

2. Possessive pronouns, which are formed from the per- 
sonal, and indicate the property of an individual ; as, 





4i 


-ov, 


" mine." 


croc, 


GTj, 


GOV, 


" thine." 


kog or 6c, 


erj or r\ 


eov or ov, 


" 7iw," " her," " ite. 5 


rjfjLErep-og, 


-a, 


-ov, 


M our." 


vjierep-og, 


-a, 


-ov, 


" your" 


<j(f)ETep~og, 


-a, 


-ov, 


" their." 


votrep-og, 


•a, 


-ov, 


66 of us both.' 9 


(Kjxjjtrep-og, 


-a, 


-ov, 


" of you both." 



3. Definite pronoun, for the nearer and stronger distinc- 
tion of one object from another ; as, avrog, avrrj, avro, 
" he himself," " she herself," " itself" 

4. Reflexive pronouns, for the more accurate indication 
and separation of a person ; as, 

R 2 



198 PRONOUNS. 

euavTov, efiavrrjc;, , "of myself" 

aeavrov, or ) asavr^, or > k , f „ 

aavrov, J oavTrjg, J j v j 

eavTOv, or ) savTrjg, or ) eavTOv, or ) " of himself, herself 

avrov, ) avTrjg, ) avTOv, J itself" 

5. Demonstrative pronouns, which distinctly point out the 
object of which we are discoursing, with the accessary 
idea of place ; as, 

6, i], to (Homeric),} 

'66e, ffie, rode, (« this »« that" 

ovTog, avrrj, tovto, C 
efceivog, eiteivT], kneivo, ) 

6. Indefinite pronouns, which merely indicate an object 
generally, without farther definition ; as, 

Tig, Tig, ti, " any," &c, 

deiva, deiva, deiva, " a certain one" &c. 

7. Relative pronouns, which refer to an object already 
mentioned, and give it a nearer definition ; as, 

oc, 7], o, " who," " which" 

ogTig, r]Tig, oft, " tvhosoever" " whatsoever" 

8. Interrogative pronoun ; as, 

Tig, Tig, ti, " who ?" " what ?" 

9. Reciprocal pronoun, which designates the mutual ac- 
tion of different persons upon each other ; as, dual, aXX?)- 
Xoiv, dXXrjXaiv, dXXrjXoiv, Sic. ; plural, dXXrjXojv, dXXrj- 
X(*)v, dXXf)Xo)V, <fec, "of one another," &c. 



INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 
1. Personal. 
'Eyw, " I." 

Singular. 



N. kyu, " I" 

G. eaov or fiov, " of me" 
D. eaoi or fjiol, u to me," 
A. e\xe or \ie, " me." 



Dual. 

N. vg)'1, Attic v&, " we two" 
G. vmv, " VG)V, " of us two," 
D. vcj'iv, " vcov, " to us two" 
A. vtil, " vg>, " us two" 



Singular. 

N. ov, "thou? 
G. (7ov, " of thee? 
D. ooc, " to thee? 
A. ae, "thee:' 



pronouns. 199 

Plural. 
N. rjpelg, " we? 
G. fjfitiv, " of us? 

D. tJ/zZV, " WS," 

A. f^ac, "ms." 
S6, " thou" 

Dual. 

N. (T^w't, Attic <70c5, "you two? 
G. G(f)G)'iv, u o<p£)V, " of you two? 
D. oipti'iv, " oip&v, " to yow £z£0," 
A. (T0(i5i*, 44 (7</>o>, " taw." 

N. ifyzetc, " #ow," (v) 
G. vfjtcov, " of you? (v) 
D. " yaw," (v) 

A. i^a^, " #ow," (v) 

ov, 6i of himself, or herself? &c. 
N. (obsolete), 

G. ov, " o/ himself, or herself? and also " of to, or Aer," 
D. oZ, " /o himself, or herself? " " " to /u'w, or for," 
A. $, " himself herself itself? " " " him, her, it? 

Dual. 

N. (706)e, " ^y both? 

G. G(p(*)iv, " o/* oof/i themselves? and " o/ rtem oo^fe," 
D. aipwtv, " /o 6o/A themselves? " " to £/tera ooJ/i," 
A. (70o)£, " both themselves? " " them both." 

Plural. 

N. (70€tc, neut. (70ea, " J/i??/ themselves? and " /Aq/," 
G. <70wi% " of themselves? " " o/* them? 

D. G(f)Coi(v), " themselves? " " to them? 

A. (70<zc, neut. a$£a, <k themselves? " " them? 



GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

1. On the obsolete nominative of the pronoun of the third person, 
namely, 2 or Z, consult remarks on page 203, § 2. 

2. The pronoun of the third person, ov, &c, was originally a re- 
flexive one, and we have, therefore, placed this signification first in 
order. It has besides, however, the ordinary meaning of a personal 
pronoun, 11 of him" "of her," &c. (Consult page 204, § 1.) In both 



200 



PRONOUNS. 



these senses it is frequently used by the Epic and Ionic writers. In 
Attic Greek, on the other hand, it is only very seldom employed ; 
thus, in Attic prose, we find merely ol, with the meaning "to him," 
and a^lat, " to them ;" although otytiv, g^lgi, ayag, were sometimes 
employed, by good Attic writers, in the signification of sui, sibi, se y 
in place of eavrtiv. In general, however, the Attics employ, as the 
pronoun of the third person, avroq, avrrj, avro, "he, she, it;" and as 
a reflexive pronoun the compound eavrov, eavrr/g, eavrov ; thus, ele£a 
avrti (instead of ol), " I said to him :" anenreivev eavrov (instead of 
'£), " he slew himself" 

3. The genitive singular of the three personal pronouns often ap- 
pears in Homer, and, after his example, in the Attic poets also, un- 
der the form of efzedev, aeOev, edev. These forms are always accent- 
ed; except when edev is employed as the pronoun of the third person 
merely, not as a reflexive. Thus, 11. , i., 114, ewel ov edev ken je- 
petuv, not ov edev. 

4. The accusative singular and plural of ov appears in Ionic un- 
der the form of fitv, in Doric and Attic poetry under that of vLv, both 
these forms, namely, fj.lv and vlv, being used for £, otitic, and atiea, in 
the sense of " him, her, it," plural " they," &c, not, however, in the 
reflexive sense. 

5. The dual form otyoe has been given by us in both the nomina- 
tive and accusative. Strictly speaking, however, it appears only in 
Epic, and there merely as an accusative. In Attic Greek it is un- 
known. 

6. The longer dual-forms, vm, v&lv, Gftui, c^d'iv, belong to the 
Ionic dialect, though vu is found twice in the Odyssey, xv., 474 ; 
xvi., 306. The Attics employ only the shorter ones, vu, v&v, <70c5, 
ccj)&v. The forms v£> and c^cj are written by some with the sub- 
script iota, as v6, c<£cj, because arising by contraction, as they main- 
tain, from forms where the iota occurs. This, however, is quite 
unnecessary. 

7. The plural dative and accusative endings, Zv, tig, of the pronouns 
of the first and second person were sometimes shortened by the 
poets, and then written rjfxtv, rjfidg, vfzlv, vfidg, or, also, tj^lv, q/uag, 
vjutv, vpag. These shortenings, however, it must be apparent, can 
only be used when the pronouns carry with them no particular em- 
phasis. 

8. The pronoun of the third person is used in the dative and ac- 
cusative plural by the poets, and among these by the Attics also, in 
the following shortened forms : dat. g6l or afyiv, instead of a&ioi, "to 
them:" accus. o&e in place of ctieag, " them" Of the two forms a$l 



PRONOUNS. 



201 



and c<piv, the tragic writers seem to have always employed the lat- 
ter. Both these forms, moreover, were used by the poets, though 
only seldom, as the dative singular. The form c<pe, on the other 
hand, was employed far more frequently as an accusative singular, 
in place of avrov, avTrjv, avro, all three genders ; and also for the 
reflexive eavrov. 



DIALECTS OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Singular. 



f Ey6v f JEolic, Doric, 
and Epic, which 
last uses it along 
with kyo). 

'E/lleo, kpiev, fiev(fiev), 
Epic and Ionic. 

'Efieto, Epic. 

'Efiedev, Epic. 
'Epevc, ifiovc^ JEolic 
and Doric. 



'Efitv, Doric. 



Tv, Doric : rvvq, Ep- 
ic, used along with 
gv : rov and tovv, 
Boeotian : rovvi], 
Laconian. 
Tev, Doric : ceo, oev 
{oev), Epic and 
Ionic. 
Zeto, Epic: Teolo,IL, 

viii., 37. 
ZeOev, Epic. 
Tevc, reovg, JEolic and 
Doric. 

TlOC) Ti(i)C, TLG), TLOVC, 

Doric. 
Ttv, Doric : retv (£), 

Doric and Epic. 
Tot (tol), Epic and 
Ionic, along with 
cot. 

Te, Doric and Epic. 



Tv (tv), Doric. 
Tiv (Theocritus). 



}Epic. 



"NCu, along I 
with v(j } ) 



Dual. 
2,<p£)Zv, oQ&t,} 
along with 

<7©CJ, 



}Epic. 



2^«i\ along | 
with o<pu> J 



Eo, ev (ev), Epic and 
Ionic. 

Elo, Epic : hloy later 

Epic. 
"Edev, Epic. 
'Eovc, JEolic and Dor- 
ic. 



"lv, Doric. 

'Eo?, Epic (and reflex- 
ive). 

'Ee, Epic, along with 
e (e), (and reflex- 
ive). 

lv (in place of avrov, 
avrr/v, in Hesychi- 
us and a fragment 
of Ibycus). 

Nu> (vlv), Doric and 
Attic poets. 

Wlv(/lliv), Ionic used, 
also, for the plural. 

2<£e (c(f>e), Doric and 
Attic poets. 



lv), [ p 



202 



PRONOUNS. 



A. 



'Hfiete, Ionic. 
'Afiec, Doric. 
"A/u/nec, jEolic. 
'Hjuicjv, Ionic and Ep- 
ic. 

'H/uetcjv, Epic. 

'Apfieuv, JEolic. 

" Afjifj.i(v), JEolic and 
Epic, along with 
rjjj.lv : 'AfipiGi(v)> 
JEolic 



'Hfieac, Ionic and Ep- 
ic, along with r)fiac . 

"Afi/xe, JEolic and Ep- 
ic. 



Plural. 
'¥{i£ec, Ionic. 
'Tfiec, Doric. 
*¥(i(iec, JEolic. 
'Y/Lteuv, Ionic and Ep- 
ic. 

'T/ueluv, Epic. 
'Tfipeuv, JEolic. 
v YfifiL(v), JEolic and 

Epic, along with 

vplv. 



"Yjueac, Ionic. 



T/LL/xe, JEolic and Epic. 



Icpeuv (cQeuv), Ionic 
and Epic, along 
with GQtiv (o(f)G)v). 

Htyecuv, Epic. 

U, Ionic ; C(j>tv, ctyi 
{ctyiv, &(j>t), along 
with a(plfft(v), c<pi~ 
<u(v), Epic. — In 
Callimachus (Di- 
an., 125, 213) we 
have <}>lv (<}>iv). — 
ijjiv (ipiv), Doric. 

20t'af (oQeac), Ionic 
and (along with 
ff(j)ac, G(pac), Epic. 

2^>£ (o<j>e), Epic : acr0£, 
JEolic : ipe (i/>e), 
Doric. 



Afii, Doric. f Y/z£, Doric. 

Remark. The forms given without accents in the above list 
are enclitic. 



SPECIAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
1. Personal Pronouns of the First and Second Persons. 

1. Four stems contribute to form the declension of the pronoun 
of the first person. The ground-stem of all is fit, a trace of which 
exists in the termination of verbs in fit, which verbs arise out of the 
earliest period of the language. The nominative singular deviates 
from the other case-forms of the same number, just as the same 
part does in Sanscrit: thus, nom. aham; dat. mac; accus. mam; 
abl. mat. It is to this aham that we may trace the Greek ey&(v) and 
the Gothic ik. 

2. In the strengthened or emphatic forms, hfiov, fyo't, efie, the pre- 
fixed e does not belong to the stem (nothing analogous appearing in 
the cognate languages), but is merely appended, by a peculiarity of 
the Greek language, for the purpose of strengthening the meaning. 

3. Three stems contribute to form the declension of the pronoun 
of the second person. The ground-stem of all is ft, or, with a fuller 
vowel-sound, tv. (Compare Table of Dialects.) The r gradually 
became softened down into a a, and av arose. 



PRONOUNS. 



203 



4. The <j in the dual forms <7<frou and a<j>ulv does not appear to be- 
long to the root, but to have come into this number from the singu- 
lar; and an argument, in favor of the a not being radical here, may 
be drawn from the Sanscrit vds and the Latin vos, where no initial 
5 appears. 

5. The plural forms of the first and second person have preserved 
themselves, in a nearly original state, in the ^Eolic dialect (dfifieg, 
v/ifiec, instead of ao/zec, vcpes), as may clearly be seen by a compari- 
son with the Sanscrit, where these pronouns form the most of the 
plural forms out of the roots asm jusm. After throwing out the a 
from dbfisc and vcftec, we have afieg and vjieg, and then, by lengthen- 
ing a and v into n and v, and changing the breathing, &c., we have 
at length yfielg and v/xecg. 

6. The dative form in iv ; as, k/itv, ruv or tlv, lv, cr&lv, yjulv, vfilv, 
answers to the Sanscrit locative form singular, which, in the case 
of the personal pronouns of the first and second person, ends in 
and in the other pronouns in in; as, maji, "in me:" twaji, "in 
thee:" tasmin, "in this:" asmin, "in the same:" jasmin, "in 
which." 

7. The dual forms, vco'i, v6, oty&l, c(p6, appear to have arisen from 
the union of the Sanscrit masculine and feminine dual form of the 
nominative and accusative, ending in au {= gj), with the neuter 
dual-form of the nominative and accusative ending in I. 

8. The accusative forms, kfte, fie, as, e, n^s, afifis, vfi t ue, have noth- 
ing analogous to themselves in the cognate languages, except the 
forms me, te, se, in Latin. 

9. The plurality of stems, to which we have alluded in the case of 
these two pronouns, appears to arise from the want that man natu- 
rally feels of expressing, by some variety of form, the various rela- 
tions in which he is able to appear. He employs, therefore, one 
form when he appears as an acting subject ; another, when he pre- 
sents himself as an object ; a third, when he opposes himself to 
others, with whom he is either connected or otherwise. 

2. Personal Pronoun of the Third Person. 
In giving the inflection of this pronoun, we have considered the 
nominative as obsolete or wanting, in accordance with ordinary 
custom. No nominative certainly occurs in the common language ; 
but still the ancient grammarians make mention of a nominative- 
form, I or t, with which we may compare the Latin is, ea, id; the 
Gothic is, si, ita (" he, she, it") ; and the Sanscrit aj-am, ij-am, id-am. 
This nominative is found in a fragment of Sophocles : 7 filv u>s I &&a- 



204 



PRONOUNS. 



gov', rj 6*' 6c 1 retcoi TratSa. (Soph., Frag., 418.) We have also the 
dative lv (or lv) avru, "sibi ipsi," in a fragment of Hesiod (Fr., 66), 
and the accusative lv (or lv), in a fragment of Ibycus (p. 103). Ac- 
cording to Hesychius, this was a Cyprian form of speech : lv, avrov, 
avrrjv • KvKpioL. — Hermann also has restored lv as a dative and ac- 
cusative in many passages of Pindar (Compare Bockh, Find., P., 
4, 36, 62.)— The accusative form lv corresponds exactly to the old 
Latin forms irn and em, for cum. (Fest. — Paul. Diac., Exc, p. 36 and 
58, ed. hind.) The accusative forms fitv and viv, already referred 
to, belong undoubtedly to the same stem. The more correct form 
of the nominative appears to have been I, with the lenis, and this 
opinion is strengthened by those expressions that seem to be derived 
from this source ; such as, Idtoc, " proprius ;" log ; i-dem, &c, as well 
as by a comparison with cognate languages, as, for example, in the 
case of the Latin is. From this I was formed the demonstrative, or, 
rather, demonstrative-relative I, just as in Latin we have from is the 
pronoun hie ; and this latter form I may be traced in several com- 
pounds ; as, lyvnrec, a Rhodian expression for avdiyevelg, " indi- 
gence" properly, " hoc in loco nati ;" iOayevrjc, from l-6a (like ev-da) 
and yevrjc, the aspirate changing to a lenis, on account of the aspirate 
coming after. 

3. Reflexive Pronoun of the Third Person. 

T T f/ 

ov, ol, e. 

1. The forms qv, ol, e, which are accustomed to be rank- 
ed under the pronoun of the third person, had originally the 
force merely of reflexive pronouns, and assumed the func- 
tions of a personal pronoun of the third person. 

2. The stem of the pronoun ov began originally with the 
two consonants ocf) (or of), as may fairly be inferred, part- 
ly from the singular forms o<piv and 0(pe, and all the dual 
and plural forms ; partly from a comparison of the Sanscrit 
(where the possessive pronoun is swas, swa, swam), and the 
Latin sui, suus, sua, &c. 

3. The stem c<p then underwent a change, the a passing 
into the aspirate, and the <p (or F) being converted into a v. 
This v, however, did not maintain its ground, but, in part, 
changed to an i (as in yto, for ov, as cited by Hesychius ; 
with which we may compare the Doric forms from rv, name- 



PRONOUNS. 



205 



ly, riog, rlovg), in part, and, indeed, in most, forms, to an e 
(compare kolo, kovg, kol, k'tv^ se, eog), and in part, again, 
was either entirely lost, or became blended with the follow- 
ing vowel (as in ov, ev, ol, bg). 

4. It is highly probable that the pronoun ov (o<f>ov) ex- 
isted originally only in the singular, as in German arid 
Latin. For the forms o(pcv, ocpe, ocpog, are evidently singu- 
lar ones, and correspond exactly to the singular forms of 
the first and second person ; as, kjJLLV, rlv, e(jle, oe, Efiog, 
cog : and, moreover, the forms ol, e, og, are found united 
with the dual and plural ; and, again, the form G(pe with 
the singular. In like manner, Gcfrerepog is often found in 
conjunction with the singular number. (Compare Orph., 
Argon., 497 : MschyL, Pers., 194 : Pind., Pyih., iv., 146 : 
Id., Isthm., v., 40, 33 : Hesiod, Scut. Here, 90 : Thucyd., 
L, 43, &c.) 

5. The Doric forms ipe for 0(pE, and \j)tv for o<piv, arise 
from a transposition of the radical letters acf). We may 
compare with this the Latin ipse, from is and pse, i. e:, ipe 
for (70s. 



2. POSSESSIVE, OR ADJECTIVE-PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

I. The possessive pronouns are formed from the genitive 
of the personal pronouns. Thus, 
ejj,~6g, -7], -ov, " mine" from Efiov, 

rjiiETEp-og, -a, -ov, " our" " rjptiv, 

ff oc, -ov, " thine" u oov, 

vperep-og, -a, -ov, " ynur," u vp,(DV, 

VG)trep-og, -a, -ov, " of us both," " vCy'iv (only Epic), 
o<f)G)iTEp.og, -a, -ov, " of you both," " G(pojlv (only Epic), 
o<t>erep-og, -a, -ov, " their," " <J(f>tiv (only Epic). 

eog, erj or ed, eov, Doric and Epic : bg, fj, ov, Doric, tj 
Epic, and Attic, suus, sua, suum, "his, her, its," for » 
which the Attics commonly use eavrov, r\g, ov, in the j 
reflexive signification ; and avrov, rjg, ov, in the sig- J 



806 



PRONOUNS. 



nification of the personal pronoun of the third per- 
son ; as, rvnret rbv kavrov vibv, or rbv vibv rbv 
eavrov, " he is striking his own son rvnret avrov ^ 
rbv viov, or rbv vibv avrov, " he is striking his 
son" i. e., the son of him, ejus jilium* 
II. The possessive pronouns are declined exactly like 
adjectives in oc of three terminations. Thus, 



Singular. 
N. ep-oc, -fa 

G. kfi~ov, -^r> 

A. kfi-OVy -7]v, 
V. -fa 



efi-og, -rj, -oi>, " mine 
DuaL 

-6v, N. e/*-c5, -w, 
-OTJ, G. kji-Giv, -alv, -olv, 

-GJ, D. Efl-OiV, 'CLLV, -OLV, 

-oy, A. -<§, -<S, 



Plural. 
N. e/f-of, -<u, 
G. h(ji-C)v, 
D. kfi-oZg, 
A. kfx-ovc, 



ale, 
at, 



-a, 

-£JV, 

-a, 
-a. 



-a, 



vfierep-oc, a, ov, "your. 
Dual. 

N. Vf££TEp-<J } -a, -fc), 

G. Vfierip-oiv, -aiv, -olv, 1 
D. VfiETEp-oiv, -aiv, -olv, '. 

A. VflETEp-U, -a, -CJ, 

V. Vfj,€rep-u, -a, -a). 

Remark. In the Doric and Epic language the following forms 
likewise occur, namely, afiog, fa 6v, or a/z6V, 77, 6v, "our;" vfiog, 
ij, 6v, "your o<p6c, fa vtyov, suus, sua, suum ; and, finally, teo$, 
a (77), ov, for crd$\-— The tragic writers also sometimes employ 
the forms apos, and dpo?, fa 6v, but principally, however, in the 
sense of "our" for "mine" 



Singular. 

N. VflETEp-OC, -a, -ov, 

G. vfAETep-ov, -df, -ov, 
D. VfiETEp-t*), -a, -w, 

A. Vfl£TEp-0V, -dv, -OV, 
V. VflETEp-E, -d, -OV. 



Plural. 

N. VflET£p-0l, -ai y 
G. VflETEp-CJV, -0)V, -0)V, 
D. VflETEp-OLC, -a£f, -Otf, 

A. vfisrsp-ovg, -ag, -a, 
V. vfiETEp-oi, -at, -a. 



3. DEFINITE PRONOUN. 

I. The definite pronoun, avro^, avr^, avro, is employed 
for the nearer and stronger distinction of one object from 
another. 

II. It corresponds not only to the Latin ipse, ipsa, ipsum, 
that is, it not only has a reflexive force ; but also, when in 
the oblique cases, and not at the beginning of a sentence, 
answers to the simple pronoun of the third person, " he, 
she, it" Its declension is, like that of adjectives in oc, of 
three terminations. Thus, 



PRONOUNS. 



airog, avrrj, avro, " self, or he, she, it." 



Singular. 

N. avT-6fr -rj, -6, 

G. ai)T-ov, -ov ) 

D. avr-cj, -ft, -u, 

A. avr-dv, -Tjv, -6, 

V. avr-df, -77, -d. 



Dual 
N. avr-6, -a, -6, 
G> avT-olv, ~atv, *otv, 
D. avT-olv, ~alv, -olv, 
A. avr-6 y -a, -w, 
V* avr-6, -a, -<o. 



Plural. 
N. ai)T-ot, -at, -a, 
G. avT*tiv, »fiv, -cjv, 
D. atr-otf, -a if, -otf, 
A. avr-ovg, -&£, -a, 
V. avT-oi, -at, -a. 



Remark 1. The pronoun airdf arises from ai5, "again " and 
rdf, " old form of d> Hence it properly signifies 44 this one 
again" that is, " the same" in which sense it often occurs in 
Homer. From this, again, arises the meaning of " self" anal* 
ogous to the Latin ipse, &c., that is, it serves to designate an 
object more nearly, and separates it, as it were, from all others. 
Thus, eyw avrbs eypatya, " 1 myself (no other person) wrote." 

Remark 2. The pronoun avroq, with the article prefixed, 
namely, 6 avros, rj avrrj, to avro, denotes, with the Attic writers, 
what avroe originally signified without the article, that is, " the 
same" and corresponds to the Latin idem, eadem, idem. 

Remark 3. This same pronoun takes upon itself the func- 
tions, also, of the obsolete personal pronoun of the third person, 
"Ae, she, it" &c. 

Remark 4. It must be carefully borne in mind, however, that, 
to express the meaning of " self" the nominative avrog is chief- 
ly employed ; and that the oblique cases only have this force 
when they begin the construction ; as, avrov yap eldov, " for 
himself have I seen ;" but eldov yap avrov, "for I have seen 
him." — Again, it stands for the personal pronoun of the third 
person only in the oblique cases, and even then only when it 
stands after other words in the clause ; as, edwfcev avrotc to nvp, 
" he gave them the fire ovx iwpaKas avrov, " hast thou not 
seen him ?" 

Remark 5. It follows, from what has been here stated, that 
the nominative avrog can never have the meaning of " he, she, 
it." 

Remark 6. Like avro? are declined ekecvoc, n, o, il that ;" and 
aXhos, n, o, " another" the Latin alius, a, ud. 

Remark 7. The article usually blends with avroc by crasis, 
so as to form one word with it ; thus, avroc for 6 avroq : rav- 
tov for tov avrov : ravrC) for tgj avrti : ravrrj for ry avry : ravra 
for ra avrd, &c. It must be borne in mind, however, that the 
neuter, in such instances, ends in ov as well as o; as, ravTo 
and ravrov, for to avro. 



208 



PRONOUNS, 



Remark 8. Care must be taken not to confound the forma 
ravry (for ry avry) and ravrd (for rd ax)rd), especially when the 
coronis or mark of crasis is omitted, with ravry and ravra, from 
ovroc. 



4. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 

I. As the ordinary reflexive pronoun ov, already referred 
to, performs also the functions of the personal pronoun of 
the third person, the Greek language has created for itself 
a special class of forms, to denote the three personal pro- 
nouns when they appear with a reflexive signification, that 
is, when they designate the subject of a proposition as be- 
ing, at the same time, its object ; as, " I blame myself." 

II. These special forms arise by compounding with av- 
rov the accusatives of the personal pronouns, namely, efie, 
oe, e, and they are then declined in the three oblique cases. 
Thus, 

Gen. e/uavrov, kfiavrfjq, &c, " of myself " &c. 

Gen. aeavrov or cavrov, aeavrijc or aavrrjq, &c, " of thyself " &c. 
Gen. eavrov or avrov, kavrfjg or avrrjg, &c, "of himself, of her- 
self," &c. 

III. The declension of these will be more fully given 
presently. The last of the three has also a neuter, and 
is likewise declined in the plural. The first and second, 
on the other hand, merely decline in the plural the two pro- 
nouns separately from which they are formed. 

IV. It must be observed, however, that good Attic wri- 
ters, besides the regular plural of eavrov, employ, also, 
(7(j)U)v avrtiv for eavrtiv, C(pioiv avrolg for eavrolg, G(j>dg 
airovg for eavrovg, &c. 

V. Although these pronouns are called reflexive, yet in 
the forms h\iavrov, aeavrov, <fec, the pronoun avrog loses 
its emphasis, and we must merely translate them by " my- 
self" " thyself," " himself," not " me myself," " thee thyself," 
&c. Whenever this latter and more emphatic meaning is 
to be expressed, the Attics separate the personal pronoun 



PRONOUNS. 



209 



and avrog, and place the personal pronoun either before 
avrog or after it. Thus, efxe avrov vdpios, " he insulted me 
myself" or avrov fie vfrpioe. When in these cases the per- 
sonal pronoun comes last, it is enclitic, since it then merely 
serves the purposes of explanation. (Herm., de pronom. 
avrog, Opusc, i., p. 319.) 

VI. From their very nature, the reflexive pronouns have 
no nominative. Some, indeed, seek, very unnecessarily, to 
complete the paradigms of these pronouns by such forms of 
nominatives as eyo) avroq, av avrog, ocpelg airol, &c. 
These, however, are too strong for ordinary purposes, as 
will appear from the preceding paragraph 

euavrov, efJLavrrjg, " of myself" 



Singular. 
G. kfiavrovy e/jiavr7jc, 
D. kfiavrC), kfiavTrj, 
A. epavrov, ey.avrr\v. 



Plural. 

G. qfifiv, avruv, 7]{iC)Vj avrCxv, 

D. rjfilv, avrolc, 7]/j.lv, avracc, 

A. rjfitic, avrovq, avrdg. 



aeavrov, ceavrrjg, " of thyself" 
Singular. 

G. aeavrov, or eavrov, aeavryc, or aavrrig, 
D. ceavrC), or cavru, oeavry, or oavrrj, 
A. aeavrov, or aavrov, aeavrov, or cavrr/v. 

Plural. 

G. VflUV, 

A. vpac, 



aVTG)V } 

avrocc, 
avrovg, 



VjLLUV, 
VflCV, 



avTuv, 
avralg, 
avrdg. 



eavrov, eavrrjc, eavrov, " of himself herself, itself 
Singular. 
£avT7}c, or avrfjc, 
eavrrj, or avrr/, 
kavTrjv, or avrrjv, 

Plural. 



G. eavrov, or avrov, 
D. iavrti, or avrfi, 
A. kavrov, or avrov. 



eavrov, or avrov, 
eavrti, or avru, 
eavro, or avro. 



G. eavribv, or avrtiv, 
D. eavrotc, or avrolc., 
A. eavrov?, or avrovg, 



eavrcjv, or avrov, 
tavralc, or avralg, 
eavrdc, or avrdc_, 



eavrtiv, or avrtiv, 
eavrale, or avrolc, 
eavrd, or avrd. 



Remark 1. We have followed, as regards the origin of these 
pronouns, the authority of Buttmann, and have supposed them 
to be compounded of the accusative of the personal pronoun and 
avroc. According to this view of the subject, the accusatives 
S2 



210 



PRONOUNS. 



kfzavrdv, cmvrov, kavrov, will have been the first that were 
formed, and the accusatives ifii, ce, 2, will have been subse- 
quently employed in forming the other cases in conjunction 
with avrov and at>r<p. There is no impropriety in this combi- 
nation, if we only reflect that the accusative is the natural ob- 
jective case, and might, therefore, have been easily used in 
forming the genitive and dative of pronouns of this peculiar 
signification. This view derives additional probability from the 
Homeric forms efi 1 avrrjv, e avrov. (Buttmann, Ausf. Spr., vol. 
i., p. 301, n.) — Matthias, on the other hand, and other gramma- 
rians, form the pronouns in question from the genitives hfieo, 
Geo, eo; as, kfieoavrov, ceoavrov, eoavrov, and from efieoavrov, 
by means of crasis, they deduce the Ionic form efieuvrov, just 
as from aio avrov they get aeuvrov, &c. 

Remark 2. The Homeric language does not use composition 
in the case of these pronouns, but gives each pronominal form 
separately ; as, zy! avrov, col avrti, ol avrti, e avrrjv, and even 
sometimes inserts another word between ; as, k(iev nepLduaofzai 
avrfft. In Homer, however, avrog appears, in the case of these 
pronominal forms, to have the more emphatic meaning of ipse. 

Remark 3. Among the Doric fragments of the Pythagoreans, 
we find such forms as avravru for eavrib (Euryphr., Stob., 103, 
27) : avravrov for eavro (Archyt., ib., i., 74 : 115, 27), along with 
another neuter form avravro (Id. ib., i., 75), &c. 



5. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

I. Demonstrative pronouns distinctly point out the object 
of which we are discoursing, with the accessory idea of 
place ; as, ode, rode, " this" &c. 

II. The demonstrative pronouns, though of three genders, 
like adjectives of three terminations, are yet distinguished 
from them in having the neuter of the nominative, accusa- 
tive, and vocative singular end, not in ov, but in o. 

III. Among the demonstrative pronouns, 6, rj, to, is usual- 
ly given, in its original or Homeric sense, of " this" " that" 
We have, therefore, assigned it a place as such under the 
present head, having already given it as the article on page 
44, to which the student is referred. 



PRONOUNS. 



211 



to, " this" " that." 



N. 
G. 
D, 
A. 



Singular, 
o, _ rj, 
tov, rye;, 
T^, Tf, 

TOV, TTJV, 



Plural. 
N. o/, a/, rd, 
G. twv, tc5v, tc5v, 
D. Tolg, rale;, Tolg, 
A. rovq, rag, rd. 



o, % 

Dual. 

TO, N. TG), TCL, TG), 
TOV. G. TOIV, TOlv, TOLV, 

tg), D. toIv, ralv, TOLV, 

TO. A. TG), TCL, TG). 

Remark 1. An account of the article has already been given 
at page 44, where remarks will also be found on its demonstra- 
tive force ; and it will also be referred to in the Syntax. 

Remark 2. The pronoun 6, 77, to, had originally the force of a 
demonstrative, and it still appears as such in the Homeric 
poems. At a later period, however, it sank, especially in Attic 
Greek, to a mere definite article 44 the." 

Remark 3. The pronoun 0, 37, to, in both its original force, 
and its mode of formation, corresponds to the Sanscrit sas, sd, 
tad (hie, hajc, hoc) ; gen. tasja, tasjds, tasja (hujus, hujus, hujus), 
&c. 

ode, rjde, t66s, " this, that" 





Singular. 




N. We, 


rjde, 


Tode, 


G. TovSey 


Trjgde, 


Tovde, 


D. TGjde, 


tx\6e, 


Ttode, 


A. Tovde, 


TTjvde, 


Tode. 




Dual. 




N. TG)6e, 


Tade, 


TG)6e, 


G. Tolvde, 


Tolvde, 


Tolvde, 


D. Tolvde, 


Talvde, 


Tolvde, 


A. TG)6e, 


Tade, 


TG)6e. 




Plural 




N. olds, 


aide, 


Tade, 


G. TG)v6e, 


Tuvde, 


TGjvde, 


D. Tolgde, 


TaZgde, 


Tolgde, 


A. Tovgde, 


Tagde, 


Tads. 



Remark. This pronoun arises from the union of the demon- 
strative 6, fa to, with the enclitic 6L It will be referred to 
again in the Syntax. 

ovTog, avTTj, tovto, " this" 
Singular. 

N. ovTog, avTTj, tovto, 



G. tovtov, 



TavTrjg, 



tovtov. 



212 



PRONOUNS. 



D. TOVTG), 
A. TOVTOV, 
V. OVTOg, 



ravrx}, 
ravrrjv, 

aVTTj, 



TOVTG), 
TOVTO, 
TOVTO. 



N. TOVTG), 

G. tovtolv, 

D. TOVTOLV, 
A. TOVTG), 
V. TOVTG), 



Dual. 

TdVTd, 
TdVTdLV, 
TdVTdLV, 



TOVTG), 

TOVTOLV, 

TOVTOLV, 

TOVTG), 

TOVTG). 



TdVTd, 
TdVTd, 



N. OVTOL, 



Plural. 
CLVTCLL, 



TdVTd, 

TOVTG)V, 

TOVTOLg, 

TCLVTCL, 

TdVTd. 



G. TOVTG)V, 
D. TOVTOLg, 

A. TovTovg, 

V. OVTOL, 



TOVTG)V, 

TdVTdLg, 

TdVTdg, 
dVTdl, 



Remark 1. The pronoun ovtoc, avrrj, tovto, arose from 6-toq, 
a-T7), rd-ro, and the v was merely inserted for the sake of eu- 
phony. The first part of this compound form agrees in its in- 
flection with that of the article, by commencing with a vowel 
or the consonant r, whenever the article commences with the 
same. 

Remark 2. We have given a vocative form in the paradigm, 
although many consider it as wanting. The Attics use d oiirog 
(seldom avrrj) like the Latin heus ! " you, there /" " hollo, you /" 
" hear !" This may be regarded either as the nominative for 
the vocative, or else as a species of vocative case itself. The 
latter appears to be the preferable opinion. 

Remark 3. From the union of tocos, rolog, and ttjXlkos, witli 
ovto<; , arise the pronominal forms, togovto^, tolovtoc, rrfkLKovroq, 
the inflection of which agrees with that of ovroc in all things but 
one, namely, their making the neuter singular of the nomina- 
tive, accusative, and vocative end in ov as well as o. Thus, 

ToaovTog, TOOdVTTj, togovto, " so much? 



Singular. 



N. TOGOVTOg, 
G. TOGOVTOV, 
D. TOGOVTG), 
A. TOGOVTOV, 
V. TOGOVTOg, 



TOGdVTTJ, 

TOGdVT7]g, 

TOGdVTTJ, 

TOOdvrrjv, 

TOGdVTTJ, 



TOGOVTG), 



togovto and -ov, 
togovto and -ov. 



togovto and -ov, 

TOGOVTOV, 



PRONOUNS. 



213 



Dual. 



N. roaovrco, 

G. TOGOVTOIV, 

D. T0G0VT01V, 

A. TOGOVTG), 

V. TOGOVTG), 



roaavrd, 

TOOCLVTCUV, 

rooavraiv, 

roGavrd, 

rooavra, 

Plural. 



TOGOVTG), 

togovtoiv, 
togovtoiv, 

TOGOVTG), 
TOGOVTG). 



N. togovtoi, 

G. TOGOVTG)V, 
D. TOGOVTOig, 

A. rooovTovg, 

V. TOGOVTOI, 



TOGavraiy 

TOGOVTCOV, 

TOGavratg^ 
TOGavrag, 

TOGdVTCU, 



ToGavra, 

TOGOVTCJV, 
TOGOVTOig, 

roGavra, 



TOGCLVTCbo 



In the same way are to be declined ToiovTog, roiavrri, toiovto 
and -ov : gen. toiovtov, ToiavTjjg, toiovtov, &c, and TrjltKovTog, 
TTjliKatiTTj, ttiKlkovto and -ov : gen. ttjTukovtov, Tr\kiK.avTT\g, 

TrfklKOVTOV, &e. 

Remark 4. In Attic, togovtov is more frequent than togovto 
{Valck. ad Eurip., Hippol, 1250), and so even in the Odyssey; 
yet in comedy we have usually togovto. — The form toiovtov is 
used by the Attics as well as toiovto, though toiovtov is also 
found in the Odyssey, and seems to prevail in Herodotus. 

Remark 5. Buttmann condemns the formation of TOGovTog 
from togoq and ovtoq, and of ToiovTog and TrjTiuiovTog from Tolog 
and TTjTi'iKog, with the same pronoun. He considers them merely 
lengthened forms, namely, TOGovTog from TOGog, the termination 
-ovrog being, according to him, merely a kind of superlative 
strengthening of the ending -og. In like manner, he makes 
roiovTog to be merely lengthened from Tolog, and TTjXiKovTog 
from TrjiUog. (Ausf. Spr., vol. i., p. 312.) — We have preferred, 
however, following the authority of Kiihner, which has certainly 
more probability on its side. (Kuhner, § 342, Anm. 3.) 



L Indefinite pronouns merely indicate an object gener- 
ally, without farther definition ; as, tlg f rig, tl, " any 
delva, " a certain one" 

II. The indefinite Tig and the interrogative rig are only 
distinguished from one another by the accent, the declen- 
sion of both being in other respects precisely the same. 



6. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 



214 



PRONOUNS. 



The indefinite rig is always enclitic, and in the oblique 
cases takes the accent on its ending. On the contrary, 
the interrogative rig, even in a connected discourse, always 
retains its accent in the nominative, and in the oblique 
cases not only retains it as in the nominative, but likewise 
places it on the radical syllable. 

III. The pronoun ogrig is frequently ranked under the 
head of Indefinite Pronouns. Some of the best grammari- 
ans, however, consider it, with more propriety, a species 
of compound relative. 

rig, rig, rl, " any? 



Singular. 

N. rig, rig, rl, 

G. rivog y rivog, rivog, 

D. rivi, rivi, rivi, 

A. nvd, nvd, rl. 

Dual. 

N. rive, revs, rive, 

G. rivolv, rivolv, rivolv, 

D. rivolv, rivolv, rivolv, 

A. rive, rive, rive. 

Plural. 

N. nveg, nveg, nvd, 

G. rivcov, riv&v, nvtiv, 

D. riGi(y), rioi{v), nal(v), 

A. nvdg, nvdg, nvd. 



Remark 1. It has been said above that this pronoun is al- 
ways enclitic. Perhaps, however, in the phrases (pacvofiat ti$ 
elvai, donee tic elvai, where it means " a person of importance" 
or, as we say in English, " somebody," it ought to be acuted. 

Remark 2. The enclitic rig can never begin a proposition, 
and no passage can be found where this tic stands at the com- 
mencement when it is clearly indefinite. (Consult Matthias's 
note on Eurip., Supply 1187, in opposition to Hermann, de 
Emend. Rat., G. G., p. 94, seq.) — But tic often stands before 
the substantive, and after a comma, according to our punctua- 
tion. 

Remark 3. The following is a tabular view of some of the 
dialectic forms : 



PRONOUNS. 



215 



Singular. 
G. teo, Epic and Ionic. 

rev, Epic, Ionic, and Doric. 
D. teg), r<p, Epic and Ionic. 



Plural. 
G. T£0)v, Epic and Tome. 
D. teolgl, Epic and Jom'c. 

(Soph., Track., 984, ro?<n foT 

TLOl.) 



Remark 4. The Attics, in place of rtvog, employ rov, and, in 
place of tivl, have ru, in all the genders ; as, ddiKv/id rov yvvai- 
Kog (Eurip., Ion, 336), and ovte tcj tittcy (Id., Androm., 568). In 
the plural they use only tiv&v, tlgL The grammarians say 
that from tcvoc a new nominative rtog, gen. tlov, dat. nu, was 
formed ; and that from this came rov, by the Ionians resolved 
into rio and r^o. 

Remark 5. Instead of the neuter plural rivd, the Attics said, 
in certain combinations, particularly with adjectives, drra, as, 
for example, dXK drra, 'irsp' drra, tolclvt' drra. The Ionic 
form for this appears to have been doca, which occurs once in 
Homer (Od., xix., 218). It is probable that this doca arose 
from the old word doca, for drtva (which see under dang), by 
an arbitrary usage, and that the difference of meaning was 
sought to be marked by the difference of breathing. 

IV. From rig are formed, by composition with ov and 
firj, the negative pronominal forms ovrtg and {^rjng, neuter 
ovrt and \Lr\ri, " no one," " nothing" which are declined 
like the simple rig. Thus, 

Sing., N. ovrig. Neuter ovrt, 
G. ovrivog, 

D. OVTIVL, 

A. ovnva. Neuter ovri, &c. 

V. The declension of the indefinite delva is as follows : 

Singular. 
N. 6, rj, to, delva, 
G. rov, rrjg, rov, delvog, 
D. tg), rirj, r'l), delvi, 
A. rov, rrjv, rb, delva. 

Remark 1. This pronoun is employed when we do not wish 
to name one, or do not know his appellation. Hence it answers 
frequently to the colloquial English forms, " what's his name" 
" thingumbob." (Brunck, ad Aristoph., Lys., 921. — Id., Av., 
648, &c.) 

Remark 2. The pronoun Sslva came first into use from the 
time of Plato and Demosthenes. It does not appear in Herod- 



N. ol delveg, 

G. rojv 6eivG)v, 

D. wanting, 

A. rovg delvag. 



216 



PRONOUNS. 



otus or Thucydides, nor was it ever received into the language 
of poetry. The old grammarians deduced it from ode, thus, 
odelva, == 6 delva, so that the ending iva is probably the same 
as Iva, "where" and 6 delva will answer to the Latin hie ubi. 
{Etymol. Mag., p. 614, I. 56.) This explanation has been con- 
demned by modern scholars, and particularly by Schmidt. (De 
Pronom. Grcec. et Lat., p. 40.) This last-mentioned critic con- 
jectures, that the Greek language possessed, at one time, a de- 
monstrative commencing with d, from which, as a stem, came 
devpo, devre, dqda, dij, de, and so, also, delva, which, according to 
him, w r as originally a demonstrative adverb, corresponding to 
Iva, "quo in loco" and signifying "hoc in loco." This subse- 
quently received inflection, like ode in roicdeci, rolcdeaai. 



7. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

I. Relative pronouns refer to an object already mention- 
ed, and give it a nearer definition. They are og, r\, o, 
" who," " which" and bgrtg, fjrig, on, " whosoever" " what- 
soever" 

II. Some grammarians rank bgrtg under the indefinite 
pronouns ; it is better, however, to regard it as a compound 
relative, or, in other words, a strengthening of og. In de- 
clining it, both the bg and rig are inflected at the same 
time. 





Singular. 




N. 


h 


G. 


OV, 

r t 

f' $ 


OV 


D. 


z>, 


A. 


OV, TjV, 


t/ 
0. 



og, fj, 0, « who," " which." 
Dual. 

Ntf Tf V 

. (o, a, u, 

G. olv, alv, olv, 

D. olv, alv, olv, 

Aw v tr 

. cj. a. gj. 



Plural. 

Ntt & 
. 01, at, 

G. G)V, G)V, 

D, olg, alg, 
A. ovc, ag, 



a, 

G)V, 

olg, 

r/ 

a. 



Remark 1. The form o, tj, to, accentuated through all the 
cases, is very frequently employed in Homer for the relative 
pronoun bg, 37, 6, somewhat like the English " that" for " which.'* 
The same usage occurs also in Ionic and Doric ; in these, how- 
ever, only in the forms beginning with r, and in the nominative 
plural masculine and feminine, rot, rat, so that it seems to be 
used only to avoid the hiatus. This usage was long denied to 
the tragic writers, even by Valckenaer (ad Eurip., Hippoi, 525). 



PRONOUNS. 



217 



It is, however, clear that they sometimes used it to avoid hia- 
tus, in the forms beginning with r {Monk, ad Hippol., 527): but 
roc and ral are still disputed. Monk even claims 6, nom. sing. 
(Compare Elmsley, ad Eurip., BaccL, 468.) In common and 
Attic prose, however, this relative is not found. (Matihia, § 
292.) 

Remark 2. In declension, the relative, even in dialects, fol- 
lows the article. Buttmann, indeed, gives the nominative o, §, 
3, but r/ and 6 are formed from the regular og. 

Remark 3. From what has been said, it appears plainly that 
the old language had only one common form for the demon- 
strative and relative. The special relative form arose from a 
change of the demonstrative r into the rough breathing. We 
may hence compare the Sanscrit demonstrative sas, sd, tad, 
with the relative jas, ja, jad, where a similar principle appears 
to have prevailed. 



ogng, rjng, on, " whosoever" " whatsoever." 



N. ogng, 
G. ovnvog, 

D. (1)TIVI, 

A. ovnva. 



N. ijnve, 
G. olvnvoiv, 
D. olvnvoiv, 
A. cjnve, 



N. oinveg, 
G. d)vnv(ov, 
D. olgnai(v), 
A. ovgnvag, 



Singular, 

ring, 
f)gnvog, 
ynvi, 
r]vnva, 

Dual. 

anve, 
olvnvoiv, 
alvnvoiv, 
anve, 

Plural. 

alnvsg, 
o)vnvojv, 
algnotiy), 
agnvag, 



on, 

ovnvog, 

&nvi, 

on. 



onve, 
olvnvoiv, 
oivnvoiv, 
Ljnve. 



anva, 

G)VTIVG)V, 

olgnai(y), 
anva. 



Remark 1. Homer says o tlq for ogng (as, for example, E., 
iii., 279), where 6 is a prefix syllable, that is, one which is not 
a significant part of the compound, but employed merely to 
facilitate pronunciation ; and he retains, with the rest of the 
Ionic writers, the 5 unchanged in all the cases. The following 
is a tabular view of these forms : 



218 



PRONOUNS. 



Singular. 
N. one, neuter ottl, Epic. 
G. brev, Epic and Ionic. ) 

orreo, orrev, Epic. > 
D. orew, orcj, .Epic and Jcmc. 
A. oTiva, Epic. — Neuter 6m, 
Epic. 



Plural. 

G. otsov, Epic and Ionic. 

D. 6t£oigi(v), Epic and Ionic. 
A. ortvac, E/?ic. — Neut. aoca 
(for anva), Epic. 

Remark 2. The form aaaa, given in the preceding table, 
comes from a compounded with ad, which last is a Megaric 
and Doric form for nvd. (Eustath., p. 148, 38.) We must be 
careful, however, not to confound with this the Ionic aaaa, 
which stands merely for nvd (consult page 215, Remark 5) ; 
and yet it is very probable, as already remarked, that these 
two forms, namely, aaaa and aaaa, were originally one and 
the same, and that the subsequent difference of meaning was 
sought to be indicated by a difference in the breathing. 

Remark 3. The longer forms, such as ycnvoc, &tlvl, olgnai, 
were very seldom employed by the Attic poets. The Attic 
writers, in general, employed orov for ovnvoc, and otcd for <J>rm, 
retaining these from the Ionic. Xenophon (Anab., vii., 6, 24) 
has even orov for uvnvuv ; and Sophocles (Antig., 1335. — 
Track., 1119) and Aristophanes (Eq., 758) have otolol for olc- 

TLGl. 

Remark 4. Observe the accentuation in olvnvotv, alvnvoiv, 
g)vtivg)v, the rule being, that long syllables in enclitics are, in 
reference to the accentuation, regarded as short. 



8. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

I. The simple interrogative pronoun in Greek is rig, rig, 
rt, gen. rtvog, &c. 

II. It always has the accent on the t, or radical syllable ; 
and has, moreover, the accent of the nominative always 
acute. By these two circumstances it is distinguished 
from the simple indefinite pronoun rig, which, moreover, as 
an enclitic, most commonly stands without accent. 

III. The inflection of the interrogative rig is, with the 
exception of the accentuation, the same as that of the in- 
definite rig. Thus, 



PRONOUNS. 



219 





rig, rig, 


ri, " who r " 


what ?" 






Singular. 




N. 


rig, 


rig, 


ri, 


G. 


rivog, 


rivog, 


rivog, 


D. 


rivi, 


rivi, 


rivi, 


A. 


riva. 


rlva, 


ri. 






Dual. 




N. 


rive, 


rive, 


rive, 


G. 


rivoiv, 


rivoiv, 


rivoiv, 


D. 


rivoiv, 


rivoiv, 


rivoiv, 


A. 


rive, 


rive, 


rive. 






Plural. 




N. 


riveg, 


riveg, 


riva, 


G. 


rivcov, 


rivojv, 


rivojv, 


D. 


rioi(v), 


riai(v), 


riai(v), 


A. 


rivag, 


rivag, 


riva. 



Remark 1. Instances sometimes, though very rarely, occur 
where the monosyllabic rig, ri, of the indefinite pronoun re- 
ceives the acute on account of another enclitic that comes 
after, and hence resembles an interrogative in form. In such 
cases we must distinguish it from the interrogative, either by 
the connection or by the accent of the word that precedes it ; 
as, avrjp rig ttote, " a certain man, once upon a time." 

Remark 2. The neuter ti, when used as an interrogative 
particle or adverb, " why?" " wherefore ?" has sometimes the 
suffix 7], producing the strengthened form Tin, which is employ- 
ed by Homer, Hesiod, and the Attic comic writers, though 
never by the tragic poets. In Attic, r«J is usually written as 
oxyton. The form Tin is analogous to otitj from oti, and eireiri 
from tizet {Buttmann, Ausf. Spr., § 117, vol. iii., p. 298), and 
appears to be equivalent, in fact, to ti dq. (Buttmann, Lexil, p. 
225, ed. Fishl.) 

Remark 3. This pronoun has, in the genitive, tso, Epic and 
Ionic ; tev, Epic, Ionic, and Doric ; and tov, Attic. — In the da- 
tive, rew, Ionic, for all genders ; and r<p, Attic. In the plural, 
where the Attics use only tiveq, t'ivuv, the Ionians have also 
teuv, and in the dative teoigi. From the old word t'ioc, whence 
these forms are said to have arisen, by changing i into e, the 
dative tioioiv is found in a poem of Sappho. (Etym. Mag., 759, 
35.) 

Remark 4. The characteristic radical of the indefinite and 



220 



PRONOUNS 



interrogative pronouns, as well as of the demonstrative, ap- 
pears to have been r. This r has preserved its place in rig, 
"any" and rfc "who" while from such forms as tov, rw, &c, 
for tlvoc, tivoc, tlvl, tlvl, it would seem that the pronoun Tog, 
T7i> to, had originally all three significations, namely, the de- 
monstrative, indefinite, and interrogative. This r changed 
with the ^Eolians and Ionians into k (as in the demonstrative, 
Trjvog, Doric ; nfjvog, Molic ; nelvoq, Ionic) ; and, among the At- 
tics, went over into n. — The k answers to the Sanscrit ku, kv, 
and k, and to the Latin qu. Compare kutas, k66cv : kutra and 
kva, kov : kas, ka, kim? Kog, nd (ktj), kov, Latin quis, qua, quid? 
indefinite, kas-tschid ; aliquis ; kas-tschana, ali-qua. 

Remark 5. The interrogative pronouns (vid. Correlatives) 
affix to their root the relative 6 (which is not inflected except 
in dcTLc) when they stand in a dependent sentence ; as, onoZoc, 
ottoocc, bnoTepog, &c. 



I. The Greek language has, also, a special pronominal 
form to express the relation of mutual interchange between 
several persons. 

II. This form arises from the blending together of dXXot 
aXXov, dXXoi aXXoig, dXXoi aXXovg, whence we obtain 
aXXrjXtov, dXXrjXoLg, dXXrjXovg, &c. 

III. The form dXXrjXcjv must, therefore, have been orig- 
inally dXXdXXcjv, but the a became gradually softened down 
to rj, and one of the two latter lambdas was thrown out for 
euphony sake. 



9. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN. 



dXXrjXcjv, " of one another: 




Plural. 

G. dXXrjX(*)v, (ov, cjv, 

D. dXXrjXotg, aig, ocg, 

A. dXXrjXovg, ag, a. 



10. CORRELATIVES. 
I. Correlatives are words which stand in a mutual rela- 
tion to each other, both with respect to form and significa- 



PRONOUNS. 



221 



•.ion. They are all directed to the general nature of an ob- 
ject ; as. for example, magnitude, form, situation, age, &c, 
and in such a manner, that one asks a question respecting 
it, to which the rest contain the simplest answers and rela- 
tions. 

II. They are all adjectives of three terminations (rest- 
ing, however, on a pronominal basis)-, having one common 
root, and distinguished from one another solely by their 
initial letters and accents. 

III. The interrogatives begin with rr : the indefinites have 
the same form with them, but a different accentuation : the 
demonstratives, on the other hand, commence with r : and 
the relatives, finally, with the rough breathing. Thus, 



ttogoc, tj, ov ; 

how great ? 

how much? 

quantus ? 
ttoloc, a, ov ; of 

what kind ? 



1T7}XlK0C, 7], ov ; 

how great ? 
how old ? 



TTOGOC, 7], OV, Of 

a certain size 
or quantity, 
aliquantus. 

ITOLOC, U, OV, 

of a certain 
kind. 



ttt/Tilkoc, f), ov, 
of a certain 
size or age. 



Demonsraives. 



r oGOc , 7), ov, so great, 
so much, tantus. 



tococ< a, ov, such, of 
such a kind, talis. 

TOiocde, roidde, rot- 
ovde. 

TOiOVTOC, -aVTT], -0V- 
TO(v). 

Tr}?Jtcoc, 7], ov, so 
great, so old. 



Relative and Dependent 
Interrogatives. 



OGOC, 7], OV. 
OTCOGOC, 7], OV, how 

great, how much, 
quantus. 
oioc, d, ov, of what 
kind, qualis. 

OTTOIOC, (1, OV. 



rfkuioc, 7], ov, how 
great, how old. 

OTT7j?^LKOC, 7], OV. 



Remark I. The forms togoc and roloc occur in the full sense 
of demonstratives for the most part only in the poets ; in prose 
only occasionally, and where but slight stress is to be laid on the 
quantity or quality. 

Remark 2. Other, but incomplete sets of correlatives, are the 
following, which, beside the interrogatives, have only the com- 
pound relatives; as, irodairoc ; onodaTzoe; "of what country?" 
the Latin cujasl rjiiedairoc, "-of our country;" Latin nostras: 
VfiedaTToc, "of your country ;" Latin vestras : uXkoc aXkoioc, ere- 
poc erepoloc, ndc navroioc. 

Remark 3. To the correlatives belong also the demonstratives 
tvvvoc, tvvvovtoc_, tvvvovtogl, 44 so small," the Latin tantillus. 

Remark 4. The forms 7jXIkoc, rrfk'iKoc, &c, have arisen in the 
same way as the Latin ta-lis and qua-lis, and correspond direct- 
T 2 



222 



PRONOUNS. 



ly to the Sanscrit pronoun, which arises from contraction with 
dris, "videre." Thus, ki-dris, " cui similis?' " qualisl" jd- 
dris, " qualis," the relative: ta-dris, "talis:" ma-dris, "mini 
similis ;" and the Gothic hveleiks, afterward huelihher, and, final- 
ly, welcher, from the pronominal adverb hue, and the verb leikjan, 
" videre," " similem esse." So, Tj-l'uzog, nrj-XiKog, rrj-XUog, come 
from the pronominal adverbs rj, 707, rrj, and the verbal root 
whence leikjan proceeds. The form tjXlkos, therefore, original- 
ly signified, "whom like," " cui similis," "qualis," but was sub- 
sequently applied to size of body, " how great" and thence to 
age, " how old." 



11. LENGTHENED FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 

I. The enclitic ye (in Doric and iEolic yd) attaches it- 
self to the personal pronouns of the first and second per- 
sons, in order to render the person emphatic. The pro- 
noun eycj then draws its accent back, except in the geni- 
tive, where e\iov arises, through contraction, from e\ieo : 
thus, eyuye, ep,ovye, e\Loiye, epeye : avye, &c. — Moreover, 
ye may be joined to any other word, as well as to any other 
pronoun, but not so as to make one word with it. 

II. The particle 6rj, but most commonly drjirore and ovv, 
are annexed to relatives composed of interrogatives or in- 
definites, as well as to oaog, in order to generalize the rel- 
ative force, that is, in order to extend the relative meaning 
to all possible cases ; as, ogrigdrj, dgTLgdfjnore, ogrigovv, 
rjrigovv. otlovv, "whoever he (she, or it) may be." (Gen. 
ovnvogovv, or orovovv, rjgrLvogovv : dat. (briviovv, or oro)- 
ovv, &c.) — onooocdrj, onoaogovv, oaogdrjirore, "how great 
(or much) soever ." 

III. The enclitic rcep is affixed to all relatives, in order 
to render the relative reference to the demonstrative still 
more emphatic, and thus properly denotes "just which;" 
as, ocuep, rjnep, bnep {gen. ovnep, <fcc.) : ooogrcep : olognsp 
(gen. ooovnep, OLOvrrep, &c.) : odmep, bOevnep. 

IV. The inseparable demonstrative t (I) is attached to 
demonstratives in order to render still more prominent their 



TltONOUNS. 



223 



expository power, and to give them a stronger demonstra- 
tive force. This i always has the acute accent, is long by 
nature, absorbs the short vowel immediately preceding, and 
shortens long vowels and diphthongs. Thus, 

Sing., N. ovroal, "this one here" avrrjc, rovrt. 
G. rovrovt, ravrrjai, rovrovt. 

D. TOVTCot, TCLVT%lU TOVT&t, &C. 

Plur.,N. ovrolt, avrall, ravrt, &c. 
So, also, bdl, 7j6t, rodt, for ode, rjde, rode : ovrcoat, for 
ovrug, &e. 

V. The Attics carry this usage still farther. Thus, we 
have, in the colloquial or popular language of the day, such 
forms as evrevdevt, evdadt, vvvi (for vvv), devpt (from dev- 
po), vvvfisvt (Arisioph.) for vvvl \iev, ev ye ravdt (Aristoph.) 
for evravdl ye. 

VI. Those forms in which a a precedes the t sometimes 
take, with the Attics, the v e(j>eXnvoi itcov ', if a vowel fol- 
low ; as, ovroaiv, eneivoolv, rovrovatv, ovrcootv. 

Remark 1. The comic writers, also, attach the syllables yi 
and 61 (arising from yet, Set) to those cases of ovrog which ter- 
minate in a short vowel ; as, rovroyt, ravrayi, rovrodc. 

Remark 2. The ^Eolians and Dorians not only attach to the 
personal pronouns, in order to render them more emphatic, the 
syllable yd (for ye), but frequently, also, the syllable vrj ; as, 
ky&vri, epevvrj, ejllIvtj. — The Epic language, on the other hand, 
can attach to all relatives the enclitic adverb re ; as, ogre, 
" even the one who,''' " the very one who.'' 1 — ocrogre, " even as great 
as." In the ordinary language, this has kept its ground in 
such forms of expression as hp' tire, oldgre, &re, ugre. 



224 



VERBS, 



VII. THE VERB. 

I. The Verb is the expression of an idea of activity. 

II. Verbs are divided, according to their signification, 
into Transitive, Intransitive, Passive, and Middle or 
Reflexive. 

III. Transitive Verbs express an action so directed to 
an object, that this object appears as suffering or acted 
upon ; as, tvittm tov avdpayrrov, " I" strike the man" 

IV. Intransitive Verbs express an action neither direct- 
ed toward another, nor received from without, but merely- 
residing in the subject itself ; as, dvdo), " i" bloom" 

V. Passive Verbs express an action so received by one 
object from another, that the former appears as suffering or 
acted upon ; as, TviTTO\iai, " / am being struck." 

VI. Middle or Reflexive Verbs express an action 
proceeding from an object, and returning to it again ; as, 
TVTTreodaL, "to strike one's self:" a7TG)6elo0ai 9 "to repel 
from one's self" 

Remark 1. The more philosophic definition of the verb, and 
its several kinds, would be as follows : the verb expresses the 
notion of an energy, action, or state, and this action is conceiv- 
ed of as one of the three following motions or directions in 
space, namely, whither, whence, where. The direction whither is 
expressed by those verbs in which the action is represented as 
proceeding from the subject to the object of the verb ; as, tvttto 
tov uvdpcdivov : or, in which the object is represented as the ef- 
fect produced by the action ; as, ypatyu tt]v h^iarokriv, " I write 
the letter." These are transitive verbs. — The direction whence is 
expressed by those verbs in which the action is represented as 
coming to the subject from something else ; as, rvirro/Liai (vtto) 
tivoc, " I am being struck by some one" These are passive verbs. 
— The notion of where (a state) is expressed by those verbs which 
represent the action as proceeding neither from nor to the ob- 
ject, but merely residing in it ; as, avdti, " I bloom" These are 
intransitive verbs. 

Remark 2. Many verbs of the middle form, by a modification 
of their sense, whereby their reflexive notion, though implied, 
is lost, have assumed an intransitive force ; as, fiovlEvo(iai) " 1 



VERBS. 



225 



deliberate;" and some, even a transitive; as, cotyi&fiaL ae, "7 
deceive thee" And in some, of which the active form is obso- 
lete, all trace of the reflexive meaning is lost ; as, fialvofiat, 
"I rage;" r/dofiai, " I am pleased " These fall under the head of 
deponents. 



1. COPIOUSNESS OF THE GREEK VERB. 

I. The Greek verb is more copious than the Latin or 
English verb, especially in the following particulars : 1. It 
has a middle voice, distinct from the active and passive 
voices : 2. It distinguishes the optative, as a separate mood, 
from the subjunctive : 3. It makes the aorist a distinct tense : 
4. It has a distinct number in the dual: 5. It possesses 
a great variety of moods and participles for the several 
tenses. 

II. We must not imagine, however, that every Greek 
verb is fully supplied with, and possesses, all these forms, 
and thus has them in constant use ; though it is customary 
in Greek grammars to select some one verb as a model for 
conjugation, and with this view to give it a complete set of 
forms, many of which it may not in reality possess. 

Remark. We have said that the Latin and English verb have 
no distinct form of a tense for the aorist. This, however, must 
not be understood to mean that no such tense as an aorist ex- 
ists in those languages. Both, in reality, possess it. In Latin, 
however, it appears under the same form with the perfect. In 
English it is commonly regarded as a species of preterite. Con- 
sult Harris, Hermes, p. 120. 



2. CLASSIFICATION OF GREEK VERBS. 

I. Greek Verbs are divided into two great classes, name- 
ly, those that end in and those that end in \iu 

II. Verbs ending in co are again subdivided into tw r o 
general classes, according to the nature of their character- 
istic letter, namely, into Pure Verbs and Impure Verbs. 

III. Pure Verbs are those whose characteristic letter is 



226 



VERBS. 



a vowel, that is, those which have a vowel before the final 
6) ; as, Xv-G), " I loose." 

IV. Impure Verbs are those whose characteristic is a 
consonant, that is, those which have a consonant before the 
final G) ; as, Xeltt-g), " i" leave." 

V. Pure Verbs are again subdivided into two classes, 
namely, Uncontracted and Contracted Verbs. 

VI. Uncontracted Verbs are those whose characteris- 
tic is any vowel except a, s, o, that is, which have any 
other vowel except a, e, o, before the final gj ; as, naidev-G), 
" I educate :" ate*), " I hear :" i9vo>, u I sacrifice." 

VII. Contracted Verbs are those whose characteristic 
is either a, e, or o ; as, Tijid-G), "7 honor:" ^Ae-o), "J 
Zo^e fiLodo-G), " I let out for hire" 

VIII. Impure Verbs are also subdivided into two classes, 
namely, Mute Verbs and LiQuro Verbs. 

IX. Mute Verbs are those whose characteristic is one 
of the nine mutes ; as, 

MUTES. MUTE VERBS. 

/3, as, (j)£p6-G), "I feed." 

y, " ay-o), "Head." 

6, " epd-G), "I work." 

#, " 7tsl6-g), " I persuade." 

/c, " TrXetc-G), "I plait." 

it, " orjTT-G), " J maAre putrid." 

r, " npaTT-cOj " 7 <2o." 

0, " " 7 anoint" 

X, " " I have." 

X. Liquid Verbs are those whose characteristic is one 
of the four liquids A, |W, p ; as, 

LIQUIDS. LIQUID VERBS. 

A, as, dyyeAA-w, " I announce." 

lit, " vefi-G), " 7 divide." 

v, " (palv-G), " 7 show" 

p, " (pOeip-G), " I destroy." 



VERBS. 



227 



XI. Verbs are still farther divided, according to the ac- 
centuation of the first person singular, present indicative 
active, into Baryton Verbs and Perispomena. 

XII. Baryton Verbs are those whose last syllable in 
the first person is not accented, and hence has the grave 
tone (flapvv rovov) resting upon it ; as, Xv-o), ttXeh-g). 

XIII. Perispomena, or Perispome Verbs, are those 
whose last syllable in the first person is circumflexed ; as, 

TLfl-G), <f)lh-G), [IIOO-G). 



3. CONJUGATIONS. 

I. The conjugations in Greek are three in number, 
namely, that of Pure Verbs, that of Impure Verbs, and that 
of Verbs in fit. 

II. The conjugations of Pure and Impure Verbs are 
again subdivided into their respective classes. 

Remark. In this arrangement of the conjugations we have 
followed the hest modern grammarians. It remains to be seen, 
however, whether this classification be a strictly philosophic 
one, and whether the proper mode of arranging the Greek verbs 
be not that which is adopted in the Sanscrit and Teutonic 
grammars, namely, according to the different modes of strength- 
ening the form of the present and other principal tenses. We 
can not divide the Greek conjugations into strong and weak 
forms, in the same way as the Gothic ; for, in the first place, 
all Greek verbs form the preterite by reduplication, wiiereas 
this is confined to the strong form in Gothic ; and, conversely, 
all verbs form certain tenses by the addition of a foreign ele- 
ment, which is the indication of the weak form in Gothic. We 
may, however, say that, in case the lengthened form of the 
present is a consequence of its being a derivative or secondary 
verb, it can not form any of its tenses by an alteration of the 
quality or quantity of the root- vowel, but must have recourse 
either to reduplication, addition, or both ; and in this way it 
may be said that derivative or secondary verbs in Greek are 
weaker forms. (Donaldson, New Cratylus, p. 523.) 



228 



VERBS* 



4. VOICES. 

I. The Greek language has three voices, namely, the 
Active, Passive, and Middle, which last is also called the 
Reflexive. 

II. The Active Voice is employed to express the proper 
transitive notion, and also many intransitive ones. 

III. The Passive Voice is employed to express the pas- 
sive notion, and also several intransitive and reflexive ones. 

IV. The Middle or Reflexive Voice is employed prin- 
cipally to express the reflexive notion ; but it also some- 
times assumes an intransitive force, as has already been re- 
marked. 

Remark 1. We have here given three voices, in accordance 
with the general usage of grammarians. Strictly speaking, 
however, the Greek language has only two voices, namely, the 
active, for the transitive proper and for many intransitive no- 
tions, as already observed ; and the middle, for the reflexive, 
reciprocal, and the rest of the intransitive notions. The passive 
action, in fact, is conceived of as reflexive (as the action ends 
in the subject), and hence is expressed by the middle form, ex- 
cept in the future and aorist tenses, which have peculiar passive 
forms. 

Remark 2. The division of verbs into different voices, one of 
which expresses that the action is considered as affecting the 
speaker, or person spoken of, and the other as affecting some 
other person or thing, is, in fact, merely a relation of case ; the 
former is that relation of case which we call locative, the lat- 
ter, that which is termed the instrumental. {Donaldson, New 
Cratylus, p. 431.) 

Remark 3. The primary power of the verb was probably in- 
transitive ; and the form in juac was probably the original form 
of the oldest verbs, expressing a state. But, as a state may be 
conceived of as affecting others, the intransitive notion readily 
became transitive without any change in the word. 

Remark 4. But the necessity of some distinction becoming 
evident, as the language progressed, separate forms soon arose 
for the expression of each, namely, the active {fit) for the transi- 
tive ; the middle {[iai) for the passive and reflexive notions. 
This difference of sense is clear in the undoubted primary form 
of verbs in fit, since, except slfcl, " sum," and el/xi, " eo" no verb 



VERBS. 



229 



in fit has a purely intransitive force. The later active form in 
o) so little retained the proper transitive force of the older form 
in fit, that we find as many verbs in <*> intransitive as transi- 
tive ; as, d-d?.7ieLv, avdelv, x al P uv -> & c - From transitive verbs 
in a) new reflexive notions were formed in the middle form fiat. 
(Kuhner, § 358, ed. Jelf.) 



5. TENSES. 

I. The tenses of the Greek verb are divided into two 
great classes, namely, Absolute and Relative. 

II. The Absolute Tenses refer to some action that is 
past, present, or future, merely as regards the speaker himself, 
and without reference, at the same time, to any other action. 

III. The Relative Tenses refer to some action that is 
past, present, or future as regards the speaker, but with 
reference, at the same time, to some other action that is 
likewise past, present, or future. 

IV. Thus, " / write" is ypdfio (Absolute) : " I write 
(while thou speakest)" is ypdcpco (Relative) : " / wrote" is 
eypaipa (Absolute) : " I was writing (while thou wast 
speaking)" is eypacjyov (Relative): m J will write" is 
ypdifx*) (Absolute): " I will write (while thou art speak- 
ing)" is ypdipG) (Relative). 

V. To denote the absolute past, the Greek language em- 
ploys a special form called the aorist (aopiorog Xpovoc^), or 
indefinite. On the other hand, the absolute present and fu- 
ture are not distinguished in form (as will be perceived) 
from the relative present and future. 

VI. The Greek verb, therefore, has the following tenses : 

1. The Present ; as, ypdcpo), " I write." 
To indicate both the absolute and relative notion 

2. The Imperfect ; as, eypa(f>ov, " / 

was writing" 
The Perfect ; as, yeypacjya, " i" 

have written." 
The Pluperfect ; as, eyeypdtyeiv, 

" I had written." 

U 



To mark the 
relative past. 



230 



VERBS. 



The Aorist ; as, eypaiba, " I wrote" ) 
To indicate the absolute past. $ 

3. The Future ; as, ypdipo), "I will write" ) 
To indicate both the absolute and relative future. $ 

The Future Perfect, called, also, the Third \ 
Future (only in the middle form) ; as, ye- f 
ypdipofiat, " I shall have enrolled myself" — To i 
indicate an action completed in the future. j 

VII. For the perfect and pluperfect of the active voice, 
for the simple future of the passive, and for the aorist of the 
active, passive, and middle, the Greek language has two 
forms, which (with the exception of several forms of the 
perfect, pluperfect, and aorist) have one and the same 
meaning, and are distinguished from one another by the 
name of first and second tenses. 

VIII. The second perfect and pluperfect active are called 
by the old grammarians the perfect and pluperfect middle. 
The second form of the aorist is termed, in like manner, 
the second aorist ; and the second form of the future passive 
is styled, in the same, the second future passive. But no 
such tense as a second future active exists. 

IX. Only a few verbs have both the first and second 
tenses together. Most verbs have either the one or the 
other of these forms. Pure verbs have only the first 
tenses. 

X. The future perfect is only in use in a small number of 
verbs. 



6. PRIMARY AND HISTORICAL TENSES. 

I. As the perfect adheres, in the main, to the analogy of 
the present and the future, while the imperfect, pluperfect, 
and aorist carry our thoughts back into the past, and we 
relate, by means of them, what then took place, the Greek 
language founds upon this difference a second division of the 
tenses, namely, into Primary and Historical. 

II, The Primary Tenses are the present, perfect, and 



VERBS. 



231 



future. The Historical Tenses are the imperfect, pluper- 
fect, and aorist. 

III. The historical tenses, it will be perceived, derive 
their name from the circumstance of their being employed 
to relate the events of the past. 



7. MOODS OF THE VERB. 

I. The Greek language has the following Moods, name- 
ly, the Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, and Impera- 
tive. 

II. The Indicative is employed to denote a thing as 
actually existing or happening, and as independent of the 
thought and conception of the speaker. 

III. The Subjunctive is employed to denote a supposi- 
tion, or mere conception of the mind. And it is divided 
into two different forms, according to the nature of the 
time to which it relates. Thus, 

IV. The subjunctive of the primary tenses, or the sub- 
junctive properly so called, denotes a supposition or con- 
ception connected with present time ; as, lg)(jL£v, " let us 
go? which in Latin is " eamus :" ypd<f)G) Iva (lavdavqc,, " / 
write in order that thou may est learn in Latin, " scribo ut 
discas" 

V. The subjunctive of the historical tenses, or, as it is 
usually called, the Optative Mood, denotes a supposition 
or conception connected with past time ; or, in other words, 
presumes a relation to some time or circumstance which is 
necessary to define ; as, eypaipa Iva fiavddvoig, " I wrote in 
order that thou mightest learn :" el n ^%oi\li dtdotrjv dv, " if 
I had any thing (under certain circumstances) / would give 

it:' 

VI. The optative is also employed to express a wish, but 
it only does so as an indefinite and dependent tense, hav- 
ing reference to some other time or circumstance than the 
present. In our own language, " if I could only manage to 



232 



VERBS. 



bring it about /" and " how could I manage lo bring it about f* 
are expressions of the same wish. 

VII. The Imperative is employed to denote the imme- 
diate expression of our will ; as, -ypa^e, " write fiovXeve, 
" advise." 

Remark 1. Although it is customary in Greek grammars to 
class the subjunctive and optative as distinct moods, it has long 
been remarked by scholars, on syntactical grounds, that, con- 
sidered in their relation to one another, and to the other moods, 
they must be regarded as differing in tense only. It has also 
been observed, that the person-endings of the subjunctive cor- 
respond to the primary forms, or those of the primary tenses, 
while the person-endings of the optative always agree with the 
secondary forms, or those of the historical tenses. (Buttmann, 
Ausf. Spr., § 88, 3, 4. — Donaldson, New Cratylus, p. 475.) 

Remark 2. It may be doubted if the imperative is really en- 
titled to the rank of a distinct mood. The marks which char- 
acterize it can not be considered as model inflections, as they 
affect only the personal termination, which is generally omitted 
in the second, and strengthened in the other persons. It ap- 
pears natural that, in issuing a command, a specification of the 
person immediately addressed should be omitted, and a greater 
emphasis laid on the person to whom the command is meant to 
apply. This is effected in English and German by placing the 
pronoun after the verb ; as, "give ye," " geben sie" &c. ; or, in 
the second person singular, by omitting the pronoun altogether ; 
as, " give me the book," " sieh da /" A command is expressed 
in the ancient languages in a precisely analogous manner : in 
the second person singular, the personal inflection is frequently 
omitted, or, when expressed, a stronger form is used, as is al- 
ways the case in the other persons. 

Remark 3. The Sanscrit imperative differs from the Greek 
in having a first person in all three numbers, and in both voices. 
This is also the case in English, though only in poetry, and in 
the plural ; as, " Leave we the theme." — " Charge we the foe." 
(New Cratylusy p. 490, seq.) 



8. THE PARTICIPIALS. 
I. Besides the moods, the verb has two forms which are 
called Participials, because, in one point of view, they 



VERBS. 



233 



partake of the nature of the verb, and in another of that of 
the substantive and adjective. These are, 

1. The Infinitive, which is the substantive parti- 
cipial ; as, fj,avddvG) ypdcpeiv, " I learn to write*" and 
to ypd(f)etv, " writing." 

2. The Participle, which is the adjective-particip- 
ial ; as, /3ovXsvg)v nalg, " an advising boy." 

II. These two participials are called the infinitive verb ; 
the other forms of the verb are called the finite verb. 

Remark. The participle must be regarded as ultimately iden- 
tical with the infinitive. In usage they are different, and the 
difference consists in this, that the infinitive, originally a parti- 
ciple or vernal noun in the locative case, has, in process oi 
time, lost all traces of its inflection, and may be considered as 
the most general and crude form in which the verb can appear. 
Whereas the participle, instead of being a particular case, the 
locative or instrumental, of a verbal form, has received or re- 
tained a set of inflections, which constitute it a mixture of ad- 
jective and verb. It will be remembered, however, that the 
participle becomes an adjective only in the same way in which 
the infinitive, and, consequently, the participle itself, when not 
joined to some noun, becomes a substantive, namely, by the 
syntactical contrivance which we call prefixing the definite 
article. {New Cratylus, p. 500.) 



9. NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 

I. The personal endings of the verb show whether the 
subject of the action is the speaker himself, or a person 
spoken to, or one spoken of, and, at the same time, also 
show the relations of number. 

II. The numbers of the Greek verb are three, namely, 
the Singular, Dual, and Plural. 

III. All the terminations of the Greek verb in its tenses, 
numbers, and persons, may be divided into two very distinct 
principal classes, one for the active, the other for the middle 
and passive voices. 

IV. In each of these two forms, the primary tenses again 

U2 



234 



VERBS. 



observe among themselves, in certain respects, a particular 
analogy, by which they are distinguished from the histori- 
cal tenses. 

V. In the active voice and the passive aorists there is 
no separate form for the first person of the dual, but it is 
expressed, when required, by the first person of the plural. 

Remark. Buttmann has shown that, in the case of the Greek 
verb, the dual is actually nothing but an older form of the plu- 
ral. (Ausf. $pr., § 87, 4, Anm. 1.) — In the active voice the 
Greek makes no distinction between the dual and the plural of 
the first person. The Sanscrit presents the form vas, or va, for 
the first person of the dual in the active voice, but this is only 
a modification of the plural mas. (Bopp, Vergleich. Gramm., p. 
331.— New Cratylus, p. 437.) 



10. STEM OF THE VERB, &c. 

I. In every verbal form we distinguish the stem, which 
contains the fundamental form of the verb ; and the sylla- 
ble of formation, by which the different relations of the 
action are indicated. 

II. In most verbs in G) the stem is found by cutting off 
the ending of the first person ; as, Xv-co, stem Xv- ; ncudev-G), 
stem naidev-, &c. And hence the stem may consist of 
either one syllable or many syllables. 

III. We must be careful, however, not to confound the 
verbal stem with the etymological root. The verbal stem is 
the etymological root increased, and forms, as it were, the 
trunk from which the other parts of the verb are supposed 
to branch off. Thus, in cj)ovsv-G), the etymological root is 
<t>ov, but the verbal stem is (j)Ovev. 

IV. The Syllable of Formation either comes after the 
stem as an ending, and is then called the inflectional end- 
ing ; as, (3ovXev-G), fiovXev-aG), /3ovXev-aofiac, or else it goes 
before, and is called the augment, or reduplication; as, 
e-6ovXevov, " / advised ;" /3e-6ovXevfca, " I have advised" 

V e Besides the syllable of formation, we find in many 



VERBS. 



235 



verbs an alteration of trie stem-vowel taking place in cer- 
tain parts ; as, for example, from rpi(p-G) we have re-rpocba 
and e-Tpdcprjv. This change from the vowel of the stem is 
termed cognation, and the new vowel thus brought in is 
called the cognate of the stem-vowel. 

VI. The letter which stands at the end of the stem, after 
cutting off a), is called the Verbal Characteristic, or 
merely the Characteristic (that is, the distinguishing let- 
ter), because, according to this, verbs in w are divided into 
different classes, as has already been observed ; namely, 
into pure, mute, and liquid verbs. (Consult page 225.) 
Thus, in Xv-G), the characteristic is v : in TLfid-o) it is a : in 
Xzy-G) it is y : in rpi6-o) it is /3, &c. 

Remark. The genuine etymological root of a verb is in most 
cases preserved in the so-called second aorist. The present 
tense of a baryton verb always shows the root under some 
modification or increase. Hence the error of grammarians in 
regarding the present tense of baryton verbs as the primitive 
form of the root, and the other tenses as derived from it. The 
consequence of this has been to load our dictionaries and lists 
of defective verbs with an infinitude of so-called obsolete forms. 
The present tense is merely the most convenient part from 
which to obtain the verbal stem, not the etymological root. (New 
Cratylus, p. 524.) 



11. INTRODUCTORY VIEW OF THE AUGMENT, 
t. There are two Augments, namely, the syllabic and the 
temporal. 

II. The Syllabic Augment belongs to verbs that begin 
with a consonant ; and it is so called because it adds a 
syllable to the verb. 

III. The Temporal Augment belongs to verbs that be- 
gin with a vowel ; and it is so called because it increases 
the time, or quantity, of the initial vowel. 

IV. Two of the tenses have an augment which is con- 
tinued through all the moods, namely, the 'perfect and fu- 
ture perfect. 



236 



VERBS. 



V. Two receive an augment in the indicative only, name- 
ly, the imperfect and aorist. 

VI. Two receive no augment, namely, the present and 
future, 

VII. The pluperfect, as regards the augment, stands by 
itself, since it retains the reduplication of the perfect 
throughout all the moods and tenses, but keeps its own 
augment only in the indicative. 

VIII. The true use of the augment is to mark an action 
which is either completely or partially past ; in other 
words, to mark past time. Hence it will appear why the 
present and future have no augment ; why the imperfect 
and aorist have an augment only in the indicative ; and 
why the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect, all three of 
which refer to a continued action, have an augment con- 
tinued throughout all the moods of the verb. 

IX. The augment originally was the same in the case 
of all verbs, namely, an e was prefixed, whether the verb 
began with a vowel or a consonant. Afterward, however, 
the usage was determined as follows, namely, the e was 
only prefixed to verbs beginning with a consonant; where- 
as, in others, it coalesced with the initial vowel, and be- 
came a long vowel, or else a diphthong. Hence, 

X. The augment in the case of verbs whose stem be- 
gins with a consonant consists of an s placed before the 
stem ; as, e-dovhevoa, " I advised :" e-ypacpov, u 1 was 
writing :" e-natdevov, " / was instructing" 

XI. But in verbs whose stem begins with a vowel it con- 
sists in lengthening the first vowel by changing a and e 
into rj (and in some verbs into ei), I and v into I and v, and 
o into o). 

XII. The perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect have, how- 
ever, what is termed reduplication. This consists, in the 
case of verbs whose stem begins with a consonant, in the 



VERBS 



237 



repetition of the first consonant of the stem with e ; but 
in the case of verbs whose stem begins with a vowel, it is 
like the ordinary augment ; as, fie-fjovXevna, " I have ad- 
vised but 'itcerevita, " I have besought" from 'IfterevG). 

XIII. When the verbal stem begins with p, the p is doub- 
led after the augment ; as, pinrG), " I throw imperfect 
eppLTcrov : aorist eppiipa. 

Remark. For the more particular definition of the augment 
and reduplication, consult page 264, seqq. — What is here given 
is merely meant to be introductory to the paradigm. 



12. INFLECTIONAL ENDINGS. 

I. In the inflectional endings there are three different 
elements, since by them the relations of time, mood, and 
person are denoted ; namely, 

1. The Tense-Characteristic. 

2. The Mood-Vowel. 

3. The Personal Endings. 

II. They are divided into inflectional endings of the 
active, passive, and middle, according to the three voices 
of the verb. 

1. Tense-Characteristic and Ending. 

I. We call that consonant the tense-characteristic which 
stands immediately after the stem of the verb, and is the 
characteristic mark of the tense. 

II. The tense-characteristic of the first perfect and plu- 
perfect active is tc in pure verbs ; as, 

(3ovhev-G). — Perf. 1. (^e-bovXev-ic-a.—Pluperf 1. e-6e6ov. 
Xev-K-eiv. 

But when the characteristic of the verb is (3, rr 9 <f>, or y, 
K, X, this characteristic becomes (or remains) aspirated in 
the perfect and pluperfect as the tense- characteristic. 
Thus, 



238 



VERBS. 



rpido), — Perf. 1. TE-rpt-cp-a, — Pluperf. 1. e-re-Tpl-ty-eiv, 
Xettcj, — " Xs-XE-cp-a, — u e-Xe-Xe-^-elv 3 

ypd(f)G), — " ye-ypa-(p-a, — " E-yE-ypd-6-ELV, 
rrXefco), — ■ " 7re-7rAe-%-a, — " e-tte-ttXe-x-^v, 
tsvxg), — " te-tev-x-o,, — 44 e-te-tev-x-ziv . 

III. The tense- characteristic of the future and first aorist 
active and middle in all verbs except those in Aw, p,G), vg), 
pG), is g ; as, 

A ctive. Middle. 
Fut. j3ovXev.a-G), (3ovXev-o-o[iai, 
1 Aor. k-6ovXsv-G-a. k-bovXEv.o-d\ir\v. 

IV. The tense-characteristic of the first aorist passive is 
#, and the first future passive has the ending of the first 
aorist passive in addition to the tense-characteristic cr, thus, 
^rja. Hence we have 

1 Aor. Pass. e-dovXev.O-rjv. 1 Fur. Pass. $ovXEvQr\G-o\iai. 

V. Only the First Tenses have a tense-characteristic. 

VI. The tense-characteristic, in conjunction with the 
termination following it, is called the tense-ending. Thus, 
for example, in the form fiovXevoG), the a is the tense-char- 
acteristic of the future, and the syllable oo) the tense-end- 
ing. 

VII. Lastly, the stem of the verb, in conjunction with 
the tense-characteristic and augment or reduplication, is 
called the stem of the tense, or the tense-stem. Thus, in 
edovXeva-a, the first aorist active, the tense-stem is e6ov. 
Xevg : in [3e6ovXevK-a, the first perfect active, it is (3e6ov- 
Xevic. 

VIII. The following will exhibit a tabular view of the 
tense-endings, in the three voices, in the first person singu- 
lar of the indicative : 



VERBS. 



239 





ACTIVE. 


PASSIVE. 


MIDDLE. 


Present, 


0), 


o/u,ai, 


ofiai, 


Imperfect, 


OV, 


oftnv, 


OfiTJV, 


Perfect 1, 


Ka or d, 


fiac, 


fiat, 

Wanting, 


Perfect 2, 


a, 


Wanting, 


Pluperfect 1, 


K£LV Or £LV, 


finv, 


{J.1JV, 


Pluperfect 2, 


£IV, 


Wanting, 


^Wanting, 


Aorist 1, 


aa or a, 


■&7JV, 


(jdjuvv or dfinv, 


Aorist 2, 


ov, 


7}V, 


OflT/V, 


Future 1, 


co or w, 


■drjaofiaL, 


aofiat or ovfiaL, 


Future 2, 


Wanting, 
Wanting, 


TjaofiaL, 


Wanting, 


Future 3 (Perfect), 


(jofiai, 


GOfiac. 



Remark 1. The first aorist active and middle and the future 
active and middle were formed, as will appear from the above 
table, either with the tense-characteristic a ; as, k-6ovlev-o-a, 
k6ov?iev-G-dfj,T]v, [SovXev-G-o), povTiev-G-ofiai., or else without the g, 
as, sgtelTi-cl, eGreiTi-djinv, gteX-u, GTe?<,-ov[iai. The first is called 
the strong formation, the latter the weak one. The early lan- 
guage is richer in weak forms than the later ; thus, for example, 
ek eta or luna, Epic ; e/tea, Attic poetic ; inavGa, common form. 

Remark 2. The aspirated d and elv refer to verbs whose 
characteristic is ft, tt, <p, or y, k, x- 

2. Personal Endings and Mood-Vowel. 

I. The Personal Ending is that part of the verbal form 
which indicates the relation of person and number, and 
which, therefore, takes a different form in the different per- 
sons and numbers. 

II. The Mood-Vowel is that part of the verbal form 
which indicates the mood employed, and which, therefore, 
assumes a different form according as it denotes the indica- 
tive, subjunctive, optative, or imperative. Thus, 



1 pers. sing. pres. Indie. Mid., fiovTiEv-o-fiaL, 
3 " " fut. " " Povlev-G-e-rac, 

1 " plur. pres. " " (3ov?i£v-6-fis6a, 

2 " " " " " (3ovl£v-£-Gd£, 

1 " sing. 1st aor. " " k-6ov?iev-G-d-finv, 

3 " " " " " k-Sovlev-G-a-ro, 



Subj. f3ov/i£V- D-yLai, 

Opt. (3oV?i£V-G-Ol-TO, 

Subj. f3ov?^£V'6-jueda, 
" (3ov?^£v-v-g6£, 

" (30V?^£V-G-G)-/Liai. 
Opt. /30V?i£V-G-at-T0. 



Here (3ovXev is the verbal stem, and fiovXev, fiovXevo, and 
edovXeva, are the tense- stems, namely, of the present, fu- 
ture, and 1st aorist middle. The endings fiat, rat, &c, are 



240 



VERBS. 



the personal endings, and the vowels o, o>, s, 01, tj, a, at, are 
the mood-vowels. 



OBSERVATIONS UPON THE PERSONAL ENDINGS AND 
MOOD- VOWEL. 

I. The personal endings follow immediately after the 
mood-vowel, and frequently connect themselves so closely 
with it, that the two do not appear as separate parts, but are 
combined into one; as, f3ovXevG-atg instead of fiovXevG-ai-g, 
and fiovXevG-xig instead of fiovXevG-rj-ic. 

II. The difference between primary and historical tenses 
is here important. The primary tenses, namely, the pres- 
ent, perfect, and future, form the second and third persons 
of the dual with the same ending, ov ; as, fiovXev-e-rov, 
(3ovXev-e-rov, f3ovXev-e-odov, j3ovXevs-o0ov. — But the his- 
torical tenses form the second person with the ending ov, 
and the third with the ending rjv : as, edovXev-e-rov, edov- 
Xev-e-rrjv, edovXev-e-odov, edovXev-e-adrjv. 

III. Again, the primary tenses form the third person plu- 
ral active with the ending oi(v), (arising from vn, vol), and 
in the passive and middle with the ending vrat : the his* 
torical tenses, in the active with the ending v, and in the 
middle with the ending vro ; as, 

Pres. act., fiovXev-o-voi = (3ovXev-ovgl(v). — Imperf. act., 
edovXev-o-v. 

Pres. mid., fiovXev-o-vrai. — Imperf. mid., s-dovXev-o-vro. 

IV. Finally, the primary tenses have the endings \iai, 
oat, rat, in the singular of the passive and middle ; the 
historical, \lt\v, go, to ; as, 

(SovXev-o-fiai, e6ovXev-6-fi7)V, 
(3ovXev-e-Gai — fiovXev-EL, e6ovXev-e-Go == e6ovXev-ov, 
(SovXev-e-rat, kbovXev-e-ro. 

V. The personal endings of the subjunctive correspond 
to those of the primary tenses of the indicative, and those 



SUBS. 



241 



of the optative to those of the historical tenses of the indic- 
ative ; as, 



2&3D., pres. indie 

IX (« 


, (3ovA£V£-TOV, 


Subj. j3uv'A£V~7]-TUV, 


ftov'Aeve-(jdov, 




fiov7\j£vrj-oQov, 


3 plural u " 


fiovA£vov-oL{y), 




Rod? pii(,)-r>i ( 




j3ov?.evo-vraL, 


tl 


{3ov7u£VCt)-VTClL) 


1 S'2W0\ " " 


flovAevo-ficiL, 


it 


f3ov?i£VG)-iuatj 


2 « 




tl 


[3ovA£V-ri, 


3 a « « 


(3ov?^EV£-rai, 


11 


(3ovA£V7]-T(ZL, 


2&3 D.,imperf. " 


e6uv/,€ve-Tov, 


Opt. 


/3oV?,£VO{,-TOV, Ol-T7]V, 




€-T7]V, 






<< << 


k6ov?„£ve-<70ov, 


ti 


(SovAevol-gBov, OL-adnv, 




i-adrjv, 




3 P/ur., " 


e6ov?.evo-v, 




(3ov?i£voi-ev, 


a u 


eSovasvo-vto, 


It 


f30V?.£V0l-VT0, 


1 SlWg". " " 


k6ovAevo-{ir)v, 




(30V?.£V0C-jLl7]V, 


2 <• « « 


kBov/.eve-Go, e6ov- 




(3ovA£vol-(jo, [SovAevol-o, 




A£V-OV, 






3 « 


£60VA£V£-TO, 




j30V/i£V0l-T0. 



VI. The mood-vowel of the subjunctive of the 'primary 
tenses is distinguished from that of the indicative merely by 
being lengthened, namely, o into w, and ei into rj ; as, 



Indie. Pov?,£v-o-ji£v, 
Indie. (SovXev-e-oOs, 



Subj. /3ovXev-(*)-[j,£v, 
Subj. povXev-rj-ode. 



VII. The mood-vowel of the optative is i, in conjunction 
with the preceding mood-vowel of the first person singular 
indicative. (The pluperfect, however, forms an exception, 
since the optative of this tense takes the mood-vowel of the 
present.) Thus, 

1 S..imperf.ind. act. (o), I Opt. (ol), I eSovaev-o-v, I f3ov?.EV-oL-jUL, 
1 PI., 1 aor. " " (a), | " {at), | kBovAeva-a-fiev, \ (3ov?.£VG-ai-fL£v. 

Remark 1. The conjugation in -fit is the oldest one; a fact 
that may he proved from the Greek language alone, without 
the aid of comparative philology. In the first place, those 
verbs which, in the classical ages of Greek literature, were 
still conjugated in -/lil, such as eI(il, dtdo/ui, iGrrjfic, (pn/it y &c, 
all convey the most elementary ideas ever expressed by 
verbs: " being" "giving" i ;< standing ," "saying," &c. They 
are words which must have existed in the oldest and rudest 
state of the language, and, therefore, could not have owed their 
existence to the observation of analogies which had arisen sub- 
sequently to that earlier state. Again, the conjugation in -ju 
X 



242 



VERBS. 



is departed from only in a few tenses (principally the present 
and imperfect active) of the ordinary verbs ; the other tenses 
all retain traces, more or less distinct, of the original form. 
Thus, though we have tvittu, we have rvnTo-fiac (which is per- 
fectly analogous to dido-fiai), tvittoi-[ii, krvipd-finv, &c. And, 
even in the present tvtttu, the original form appears to have 
been tvttto-iul, softened afterward to tvttt-oju, and this changed 
by euphony to tvtvtg). So, the imperfect would seem to have 
been, at first, e-tvtzto-[ii, then ervnTo-ji, and, finally, etvtzto-v, 
the Greek language not tolerating any form ending in jn. — So, 
again, in the second and third persons singular, tvtztelq will 
have been originally tvtttegl, and tvtttei originally tvtttetl. 

Remark 2. The Greek conjugation in /lu affords another proof 
of its antiquity in its close agreement with the Sanscrit conjuga- 
tion-form. And the Latin and Gothic, which both belong to the 
same stock, had originally the same verbal-form. In the Latin 
it remains merely in the two verbs inquam and sum. Compare 
the Greek ddfiva/nt (Doric for fidfivq/Lti), the Sanscrit damjdmi, the 
Latin inquam, and the Gothic faran (German fahren, "to move," 
&c.). Thus, 



dd/LLVd-jUL, 


damjd-m.i, 


inqua-m, 


fara, 


6dfj,vd-Cy 


damja-si, 


inqui-s. 


fari-Sy 


ddftvd-Ti, 


damja-tiy 


inqui-ty 


fari-thy 




damjd-was, 




fard-Sy 


ddfiva-Tov, 


damja-ihas, 




fara-tSy 


ddjuva-TOVj 


damja-tas. 






ddfiva-fjLEC, 


damjd-mas, 


inqui-mus. 


fara-m. 


ddjuva-re, 


damja-tha, 


inqui-tisy 


fari-thy 


ddjuva-vTi, 


damja-nti. 


inquiu-nty 


fara-nd. 



Remark 3. The terminations of the verbs in /ui are person- 
endings, originally pi, gl, tl, &c, and these suffixes, thus de- 
noting the personsy are the personal pronouns more or less cor- 
rupted. According to some, they are nominative cases, the root 
of the verb constituting the predicate, and the connecting sylla- 
ble the copula. This, however, has been very justly regarded 
as unphilosophical, for it arranges predicate, copula, and sub- 
ject in an order converse to that which every logician knows 
to be the natural one. It is better, therefore, to regard them 
as objective, or, rather, locative cases of the personal pronouns, 
and thus dldu-fii will signify, " giving here" i. e. t where the 
speaker is ; didu-cn, "giving where the person addressed is;" 
dtdco-TCy "giving there," i. e., at another place. This explanation 



VERBS. 



243 



proceeds on the principle that the original verb stands on pre- 
cisely the same footing with the noun. (New Cratylus, p. 431.) 

Remark 4. Buttmann has shown (Ausf. Spr.j § 87, 4, 1) that, 
in the case of the Greek verb, the dual is actually nothing more 
than an older form of the plural. In the active voice the Greek 
makes no distinction between the dual and the plural of the first 
person. The Sanscrit, indeed, presents the form vas or va, for 
the first person of the dual in the active voice, but this is only 
a modification of the plural mas, as we have vayam for mayam, 
&c. (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm., p. 331. — New Cratylus, p. 437.) 



PARADIGM OF THE VERB. 
Preliminary Remarks. 

1. As a general rule, the accent of the verb goes as far back 
from the end as the nature of the final syllable will allow. More 
particular information on this head will be given hereafter. 

2. According to the new arrangement of the tenses, as adopt- 
ed by the best of the present European grammarians, the old 
so-called perfect and pluperfect middle have now become the 
second perfect and pluperfect active. 

3. Again, the old so-called perfect and pluperfect passive are now 
regarded as the genuine perfect and pluperfect middle. — As, how- 
ever, these tenses serve, at the same time, to denote the passive 
also, we have given them in the paradigm under both these voices. 

4. The grounds on which the above changes rest will be 
found stated in the Remarks on the force of the different tenses. 

5. As the perfect and pluperfect middle or passive append the 
personal-ending at once to the tense-stem, without any mood- 
vowel, and can not, therefore (except only a few perfects and 
pluperfects in fjfiat and jjfMjv, from contracted verbs), form a 
separate subjunctive and optative form, they are compelled to 
have recourse to a circumlocution of the participle with the sub- 
junctive and optative of elfit, "to be;" as, fteSovXev/iEvoc c5, 
SovXevfievoe elnv. The conjugation of e'ljil, whence w and elnv 
are obtained, will be found on page 369. 

6. As the optative is nothing more than the subjunctive of 
the historical tenses, we ought in strictness to call its present 
an imperfect, and its perfect, a pluperfect. We have preferred 
retaining the old nomenclature, the more especially as the fu- 
ture is also given by the most recent grammarians. 

7. Pure verbs in w, whether contracted or uncontracted, 
want, as has already been remarked, the second tenses ; name- 



244 



VERBS. 



ly, the second perfect and, pluperfect (old so-called perfect and 
pluperfect middle), and second aorist. Some grammarians fill up 
the places of these with tenses taken from other verbs that have 
them. But this violates analogy, and is productive of error. 



PURE UNCONTRACTED VERB IN £2. 
Active Voice. 
fiovAEv-G), I advise (or give counsel to another). 

Moods and Tenses. 





Indicative. 


Imperative. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


Present, 
Imperfect, 
Perfect 1, 
Pluperf. 1, 
Perfect 2, 
Pluperf. 2, 
Aorist 1, 
Aorist 2, 
Future, 


[3ov?Lev-G), 

e-Bovlev-ov, 

{3e-6ov?isv-K-a, 

e-ds-dovAev-K-etv, 

Wanting, 

Wanting, 

k-Sov/iEV-o-a, 

Wanting, 

BovTiev-a-G), 


^ (3ovXev-£, 
| j3e6ov?LevK-e, 

fiovXeva-ov, 


-OLflt, 

-CLL\Ll, 
-OlflL, 


-CJ, 
-CJ, 

-0), 


-CLV, 
-evai, 

-at, 
-eiv, 


-G)V f 
-Wf, 

-<Zf, 
-0)V. 



NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 
Indicative Mood. 
Present. I" advise. 
S. fiovXev-G), fiovXev-eig, (3ovXev-el, 

D. (3ovXev-etov, P.ovXev-etov, 

P. /3ovXev~o[iev, (3ovXev-£te, (3ovXev-ovol(v). 

Imperfect. I was advising. 
S. e-6ovXev-ov, E dovXEV-sg, £-6ovXev-e(v), 

D. £~6ovX£V-£TOV, £-6ovXeV-£T7]V, 

P. E-6ovX£V~0[J,EV, £-60V?v£V-ET£, £-6ovXeV-OV. 

Perfect. I have advised} 
S. /3£-6ovX£V'fc-a, /3E-6ovX£v-tc-ag, /3e-6ovX£V'K-e(v), 
D. pE-bovXEv-K-arov, PE-dovAEv-K-arov, 

P. $E-bov\£V-K,-a\l£V j3£-60V?i£V-IC-aT£, (3E-6GvX£V~lC~d<Jl(v) 

Pluperfect. I had advised. 

S. £-6£-60VA£V-fC-ELV, £-6£-6oVA£V-tC-£t,g, £'6e-6ovX£V-IC~EI, 

D. £-6e-6ovXev -K'EL- e-6£-6ovXev-k-el- 

TOV, TTjVy 
P. £-6£-6ovXEV-K-£l- E-dE-dovXEV-tC-ElTE, £-6£-6ovX£V'K-£<JaV. 
fl£V, 

1. Pure verbs in co have, as already remarked, no second perfect 
and pluperfect. 



VERBS. 



245 



£-6ovXev-cr-£(v), 

£-6ovXev-a-dr7]v, 

e-6ovXeV'0-av. 



Aorist. I advised. 1 

S. e-dovXev-o-a, k-bovXev-o-ag, 
D. £'6ovXev-<j~arov, 
P. s-6ovXev-(J-afi£v, e-dovXev-a-are, 

Future. I will advise. 

S. ftovXev-a-G), /3ovXev-G-£ig, PovXev-o-ei, 

D. (3ovXev-g-etov, f3ovXev-a-srov, 

P. PovXev-o-o\lev, PovXev-o-ete, fiovXev-o-ovoi(y). 



Imperative Mood. 

Present. Be advising. 

fiovXev-ETG), 
PovXev-etgjv, 
(3ovX£v-ETG)oav. 

Have advised. 2 

/3e 6ovXev.k-etg), 

/3£-6ovX£V-tC-ETG)V, 
(3£-6ovX£V-fC-STG)(JaV. 

Advise. 
povXEv-o-dro), 
povXEv-a-drcov, 
PovXev ■ o-drcjaav. 



S. PovXev. e, 
D. PovXev-etov, 
P. (3ovXev-£te, 

Perfect. 
S. Pe-OovXev-k-e, 

D. p£-6oVA£V-fC-ETOV, 
P. (3E-6ovX£V-fC-£TE, 

Aorist 
S. PovXev-o-ov, 

D. 0OV?.£V~O~aTOV, 

P. PovXev -v-ars, 



pOvXEV-OLflEV, 

Perfect. 

pE-dovXEV-fC-OLfjil, 



Optative Mood. 
Present. I might, fyc, be advising. 
S. PovXev-oi^i, povXEv-otg, PovXev-ol, 
D. PovXev-oltov, PovXev-olttjv, 

PovXev-olte, PovXev- olev. 

I might, fyc, have advised? 

S. (3£-6ovX£V-fC-OL[Ml, /3s-6ovXEV-fC-OLC, pE-6oVAEV-fC-OL, 

D . p£-6ovXEV'fc-oL~ov, Pe-6ovXev-k-oIt7]v 

P. Pe'6ovXev-k-oliiev, Pe-^ovXev-h-olte, Pe-6ovXev-k-ol£v . 

1. Pure verbs in o have no second aorist. 

2. Only a few perfects form an imperative, and these most com- 
monly have a present signification. — (Vid. Remarks upon the Para- 
digm.) 

3. This tense is usually expressed by a periphrasis with the par- 
ticiple and elvat ; as, (3e-6ovAev-K-c)c eiTjv, [3e-6ov%ev-K-coc sltjc, &c. 
{Vid. Remarks upon the Paradigm.) 

X2 



246 



VERBS. 



Aorist. I might, fyc, advise, 

S. PovXev-o-aifii, j3ovXev-o-cug, j3ovXev-<j ai, 
D. fiovXev-o-aiTOv, fiovXev-o-aiTTjv, 

P. 8ovXev-<j-aifji£v, f3ovXev-o-aiT£ 9 fiovXev-o-aiev. 

iEouc First Aorist. 1 

fiovXev-G-eiag, (3ovXev-<j'et,e(v), 
PovXev-G-elarov, j3ovXev-o~eid~7jv, 
a-etafiev, PovXev-o-elare, j3ovXev-G-etav. 

Future. I might hereafter advise. 

S. PovXev-o-oifj-L, povXev-a-otg, /3ovXev-o~oi, 

D. (3ovX£v-o-oltov, PovXev-g-oIttjv, 

P. j3ovXev-a-oi[iev, PovXev-c-otre, j3ovXev-o-otev. 



S. povXev-a-eta 
D. 

P. (3ovXev 



Subjunctive Mood. 
Present. I may be advising. 
S. fiovXsv-G), povXev-irjg, /3ovXev-%i, 

D. (3ovXev-7jTov, PovXev-rjTov, 

P. f3ovXev-G)fiev, f3ovXev-7]re, /3ovXeV'G)oi(v). 

Perfect. / may have advised. 2 

S. (3e-6ovXev-K-G)j ($£-6ovX£v-ic-%ie, (3s-6ovXev-fc-'q 1 
D. fie-dovXev-tc-rjTov, (3e-6ovXev-K-7]TOV, 

P. /3£-6ovXev-ic-(*)[i£V, ps-dovXev-fC'TjTe, l3e-6ovXev-fc-(*)OL(v). 

Aorist. / may advise. 
S. fiovXev-o-G), /3ovXev-<7'X}g, povXev-o-q, 
D. fiovXev-o-rpov, /3ovXev-G-7]rov, 

P. (3ovX£v-o-G)fi£v, (3ovX£v-o.7jte, (3ovX£v-o-G)ci(v). 



Participials. 



INFINITIVE. 

Present. /3ovX£v-£iv, 
Perfect. j3£-6ovX£vtc-£vai, 
Aorist. fiovX£v-o-ai, 
Future. j3ov-X£v-o-£tv, 



to he advising, 
to have advised, 
to advise, 

to he about to advise. 



1. Consult Remarks on the Paradigm. 

2. The perfect subjunctive, however, is usually expressed by a 
ppriphrasis with the participle and elvai ; as, ^e-dovTisv-K-ug u, fig, 
y, &c. 



VERBS. 



247 



Participles. 
Present. Advising. 
N. (3ov Xev wv, /3ovXev-ovo~a, f3ovXev-ov, 

G. dovXev-ovrog, PovXev-ovorjg, fiovXev-ovrog, &c. 

Perfect. Having advised. 
N. pe-dovXev-ic-toc, /3e-6ovXev-fc-vla, (3e-6ovXev-fc-6g, 
G. /3e 6ovXev-fc orog, j3e-6ovXev ft*vlag, fie-dovXev fc-orog, 

&c. 

Aorist. Having advised. 
N. f3ovXev-odg, j3ovXev-cr-d(ja, fiovXev-o-dv, 
G. /3ovXev-o~avTog, /3ovXev-G-do7jg, fiovXev-o-avTog, 

&c. 

Future. About to advise. 
N. /3ovXev-o-G)v, (3ovXev-o-ovGa, j3ovXev-e-ov, 
G. PovXev-o-ovrog, ftovXev.o-ovorjg, fiovXev-o-ovrog, 



MIDDLE VOICE. 
BovXev-ofiai, I resolve (i. e , give counsel to myself). 
Moods and Tenses. 



Present, 

Imperf., 

Perfect, 

Pluperf., 

Aorist, 

Future, 
F. Perf., 



Indicative. 



jSovTiev-ofiai, 

k-60VA£V-6lLl7}V, 

fie-Bovhev-fiai, 

s-de-Bov/iev-fiTjv, 

s-6ov?,ev-a-djLLnv, 

f3e-6ov?.ev-(T-ofj,aL, 



Imperative. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


) fiuvAsv- 
S ov, 


-OLflTjV. 


-cofiac, 


i /3e-6ov- 


-fisvog, 


-flEVOQ 


S ?.£V-GO, 


elnv, 




pOVASV-O- 


-aljunv, 




cll, 


-oijLinv* 





Infin. 


Part. 


-egOcll, 


-Sfievoc. 


-odai, 


-fievog, 


-acdac, 


-dfzevoc, 


-eodai, 
-eadai, 


-6/ievog, 

-OfXEVOg. 



NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 
Indicative Mood. 
Present. I resolve. 
S. fiovXev-opLat, fiovXsv-et, fiovXev-erai, 
D. povXev-oueOov, povXev-eodov, /3ovXev-eadov, 
P. ftovXed-ofieOa, /3ovXev-eo0s, fiovXev-ovraL. 

Imperfect. I was resolving. 
S. e-dovXev-ounv, e-6ovXsv-ov, e-dovXev-ero, 
D. k-6ovXev-6jiedov , e-dovXev-eodov, e-dovXev-eodrjv, 
P. k-dovXev-oiieda, e-bovXev-eode, e-6ovXev-ovro. 



248 verbs- 
Perfect. I have resolved. 

S. (Je-SovXev-fiai, /3e-6ovAsv-aac, fie-bovXev-rai, 
D. (3e-6ovXev {iedov, (3e-6ovXev-o6ov, j3e-6ovXev-odov 9 
P. /3e-6ovXev-fjLe0a, fie-ftovXev-ode, pe-dovXev-vrai. 

Pluperfect. I had resolved. 

S. e-6£-6ovXev-[A7jv, e-6e-6ovXev-oo, s-6e-6ovXev-ro, 
D. £-6e-6ovXev-fjieOov,e-6E-6ovX£v-(j6ov, s 6e-6ovXev~odrjv, 
P. e-6e-6ovXsv-fieda, £-6e-6ov?.£v-ode, £-6£-6ov-X£v-vro. 

Aorist. i" resolved. 
S. £-bovX£v-a-a\ir\v \ £-6ovX£v-g-g), £-6ovX£v-a-aro, 

D. £-6ovX£V-G-d[l£0oV,£-6ovX£V-O-a(7doV, £-6ovX£V-O'da07]V, 

P. £-6ovX£v-O'dfi£0a, k-bovX£v-o-ao6£ i £-6ovX£v-G-avro. 

Future. I will resolve. 

S. $ovX£v-G-o\iai, fi0V?^£V-O-£L, f3ovX£v-G-£rai, 
D. j3ovX£v-G'6fisdov, f3ovX£v-o-£odov, /3ovX£v-cr-£odov, 
P. j3ovX£v-o-6^£da, /3ovX£v-g-£gO£ 7 (3ovX£v-G~ovrai. 

Future Perfect. I will have resolved. 

S. (3£-60VA£V-O-0Uai, /3£-6ovX£V-G-£l, (3£-6ovX£V-(J-£Tai, 

D. /3£-6ovX£v-a-6ji£~ f3£-6ovX£v-o-£<7. (3£-6ovX£v-g-£gOov, 
Oov, Oov, 

P. fi£-6ovX£V-G-6ll£0a,(3£-6ovX£V-G'£Gd£, j3£-6ovX£V-G-OVTdl. 



Imperative Mood. 

Present. Be resolving. 

S. f3ovX£v-ov, (5ovX£v-£g6g)) 

D. /3ovX£v-£g0ov, /3ovX£v-£g6g)v, 

P. /3ovX£v-£g6£, (SovX£v-£Gd(x)Gav, usually -£gO(»)v. 

Perfect. Have resolved. 

S. (3£'6ovX£v-go, I3£-6ovX£v-g0g), 

D. (3£'6ovX£v g6ov, (3£-6ovX£v-g0g)v. 

P. J3£.6ovX£v~Gd£, f3£-6ovX£v-GQG)Gav usually -g6g)v. 

Aorist. Resolve. 

S. /3ovX£v-G-at, j3ovX£v-G-aG6(i), 

D. f3ovXev-G.aGdov, PovXm-G-dGdcdv, 

P. j3ovX£v-G~aG6£, j3ovX£v-G-dGdd)Gav, usually -aGOtev. 



VERBS. 



249 



Subjunctive Mood. 
Present. I may be resolving. 

S. fiovXev-uuai, fiovXev-yj, flovXev-rjTat, 
D. /3ovXev-G)fjie6ov, /3ovXev~7jo6ov, (3ovXeV'7joOov, 
P. (3ovXev-G)[i£da, fiovXev-rjoOe, j3ovXev-G)vrat. 

Perfect. / may have resolved. 

S. /3e-6ovXev-fi£Vog o), qg, % 

D. fie-dovXev-fievG), tjtov, rjrov, 

P. Pe-dovXev-fievoi G)fiev, rjre, (bat. 

Aorist. I may resolve. 

S. fiovXev-G-Ufiat, PovXev-G-y, povXev-G-TjTai, 
D. /3ovXev-o-(x)(jLedov, fiovXev-o-rjoOov, fiovXev-o-rjodov, 
P. /3ovXev-G'G)fJie6a, flovXev-fj-rjade, fiovXev-O tevrai. 



Optative Mood. 

Present. I might be resolving. 

3. f3ovXev-oL(jL7)v, fiovXev-oto, ftovXev-otTO, 
D. flovXev-OLfjieOov, povXev-otodov, j3ovXev-oLod7]V, 
P. povXev-oLfieOa, f3ovXev-oiode, fiovXev oivTO. 

Perfect, I might have resolved. 

S. f3e~6ovXev-iievo(; elrjv, efy, 
D. fie-dovXev-fievG), el7]tov, elrjrrjv, 

P. fie-dovXev-fievoi, elrjfiev, et7]re 9 elrjoav. 

Aorist. / might resolve. 

3. fiovXev-o-aLfiTjv, (3ovXev-o~aio, povXevG-airo, 
D. (3ovXev-G~aifiedov, fiovXev-G-aiGdov, fiovXev-G-a'iGQriv, 
P. povXev-G-alfieda, j3ovXev-G-atGde, /3ovXev-a-atvro. 

Future. I might be about to resolve. 

3. (3ovXev-g '>oi\L7)v povXev-G-OLo, ftovXev-G oiro, 
D. j3ovXev-o o[fj,e6ov, /3ovXev-g-oio6ov, /3ovXev-a-otGd?jv 9 
P. f3ovXev-G-OLiie6a, BovXev-G-oiGOe, PovXev-g-oivto. 



250 



VERBS. 



Future Perfect. I might have resolved. 

S. l3s'6ovXev-G'OLfirjv,j3e'6ovXev-G'OLo 1 /3e-6ovXev-G'OCT0 9 
D. $E-bovX£v-G-o(\iE- (3e-6ovX£v*g-oig« (5e-6ovXev-g-olg- 

dov, dov, Orjv, 

P. fie-6ovXev-o-oLiie- j3e-6ovXev-o*oiode, f3e-6ovXeV'0-oivro, 

da, 



Participials. 

INFINITIVE. 

fiovXev-eodat, to be resolving. 
(3e-6ov?iev-odai, to have resolved. 
PovXev-o-aoOai, to resolve. 
[3ovXev-o-Eodai, to be about to resolve. 
j3e-6ovXev.G*eodai y to be about to have resolved* 

Participles. 

Present. Resolving. 

N. fiovXev-dfievog, PovXEV-ofisvr}, $ovXev-6[ievov, 
G. /3ovXeV'0[ievov, ($ovXev-oii£V7}<;, $ovXev-o\ievov, Sec. 

Perfect. Having resolved. 

N. (3e-6ovXev-fievo(;, (3e-6ovXev-fjL£V7], fie-dovXev-fievov, 
G. Pe-dovXev-fievov, j3e~6ovXev-iJLev7]g, j3e-6ovXeV'[ievov 9 

&c. 

Aorist. Having resolved. 

N. PovXeV-G-dfiEVOg, fiovXEV-G-aflEVt], fiovXEV-G-d/JLEVOV, 

G. j3ovXEV-<?-a[j,svov> j3ovXsv.G-a[iEV7]g i (3ovXsv-G'a[jLEVov 9 
Future. About to resolve. 

N. (iovXEV-G-OflEVOq^ $0VX£V-G-0\1£V7), $OvXeV-G-6\LEVOV , 
G. PovXeV-G-OUEVOV, (3ovXeV G-0[J,£V7]g, fiovXEV-G-OfXEVOV, 

&c. 

Future Perfect. About to have resolved. 

N. (5£-6ovXEV-G~6fJL£- j3E-6ovXEV'G-OfJLE- j3E-6ovXEV-G'6fl€^ 

vog, vrj, vov, 

G. (3e.6ovXev*g*oij,s* j3s-6ovXev-G*ofjL£* /3e*6ovXev-g~oii6- 
vov, vrjg, vov, he. 



Present. 
Perfect. 
Aorist. 
Future. 
Fut. Perf 



VERBS. 



251 



PASSIVE VOICE. 1 



Bovhsv-ofjiai, I am advised. 
Moods and Tenses. 



Present, 

Tmpekf., 

Perfect, 

Pluperf., 

Aorist, 

Future, 
F. Perf., 


Indicative. 


Imperative. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


(3ovXev-ofiat, 
e-6ov?iev-6[i7}v, 
j3e-6ov?icv-fj,at, 
e-6e-6ov?iEV-[j,7]v, 

E-60V?lEV-6-7}V, 

j3ov?iEv-67j-(7-ofj,af, 
(3s-6ov?i£v-(j-o{zai, 


) (3ov?i£V- 
) ov, 
) /3e-6ov- 

\ XeV-OO, 
(30V?i£V-d- 


-olfinv, 
-fiEVog 

£L7}V, 
--&-EL7JV, 

-OLflTjV, 
-OLflVV, 


-ufiat, 

-[iEVoq 
(5, 


-Eodai, 
-odai, 

--&-7}vai, 

-eadaL, 
-EoOai, 


-OflEVOC, 
-/XEVOCf 

-ofievoq, 

-OjLLEVOg. 



NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 
Present. / am being advised. ; 

S. PovXEv-o^at, fiovXev-ei, /3ovXev-erat, 
D. PovXev-dfjLedov, PovXev-eoOov, PovXev-egOov, 
P. j3ovAev~6{jLeda, PovXev-eoOe, povXEv-ovrat. 

mperfect. J was being advised. 

S. e-6ovXev-6fj,r]v 1 e 6ov?iEv-ov, e~6ovXev-eto, 
D. e dovXev-dfieOov, e-6ovXev-eo6ov, e-6ovXev-e(jdr}v, 
P. e-6ovXev-6fie0a, e-dovXev-eode, e-6ovXev-ovto. 

Perfect. I have been advised. 

S. pe-dovXev-jjiai, fte-dovXev-oai, Ps-dovXev-rac, 
D. Pe-6ovXev-jjisdov, Pe-6ovXev-o6ov, pe-6ovXev-odov, 
P. Pe-6ovXev [j,e0a, pe-dovXev-ode, Pe-6ovXev-vrac. 

Pluperfect. I had been advised. 

S. e-6e-6ovXev-[jir]v, e-6e-6ovXev-oo, s-6e-6ovXev-to, 
D. e-de-dovXev-fieOov, e-6e-6ovXev-odov, e-6e-6ovXev-oQtjv, 
P. £-6e-6ovXsv-fieda, e-6e-6ovXev-o6e, e-6e-6ovXev-vto. 

Aorist. / was advised. 
e-dovXev-d-rjv, E'dovXev-d-rjg, e-6ovXev-6-7]^ 

D. E 6ovXEV-d-7]TOV, E-6ovXEV-6-r]T7]V, 

P. e-6ovXev-0t]iiev, £-6ovXEv-d-r)TE, E-dovXEv-O-rjoav 



1. We have placed the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect under 
the passive paradigm also, though, strictly speaking, middle tenses, 
in accordance with Remark 3, page 243. 



252 VERBS. 

Future. I will be advised. 

S. PovXev-Orj-a-oiiai, fiovXev-Orj-oet, PovXev Br\ GErai 9 
D. PovXEv-Orj-o-ofie- PovXev-O^-g-eg- (3ov?^ev~6r]~(jeo0ov 9 

6ov, 6ov, 
P. PovXev-Bt\-g-6\ie- PovXev-Orj-o-EoQe, PovXEv-drj-Govrai. 

6a, f 

• Future Perfect. I will have been advised. 

S. fte-6ovX£v-o-oiJai, Pe-6ovXev-g-el 9 f3e bovXev-o-erai, 

D. (3e-6ovXev-o~6[iE- Ps-6ovXev-g-eg- Pe-6ovXev-g-egOov 9 

Oov, 6ov, 

P. p£.6ovX£v-o-6iJL£da, Pe6ovXev-g-egOe 9 pE-6ovXEv-G-ovrai. 



Imperative Mood. 

Present. Be advised. 

S. (3ovXev-ov, (3ovXev-eg6g), 

D. (BovXev-egOov, (3ovXev-eg0g)v, 

P. (3ovXev-eg6e, povXsv-EGdoGav, usually -egOmv. 

Perfect. Have been advised. 

S. /3e-6ovXev-go, /3e-6ovXev-g6(o, 

D. Pe-6ovXev-g6ov 9 Pe-6ovXev-g6g)v 9 

P. Pe-6ovXev-g6e, Pe-^ovXev-gQ^gov 9 usually -gOgjv. 

Aorist. Be advised. 

S. PovXEV-d-TjTL, fiovXEV-O'TJTG), 

D. PovXev-Q-tjtov, /3ovXEV-6~r]TG)V, 
P. PovXev-O-tjte, (3ovX£V-0-7JTG)GaV. 



Optative Mood. 
Present. / might be advised. 

S. PovXev-oi\lt\v 9 /3ovXev-olo, /3ovXev-olto, 
D. PovXev-oi[ie6ov 9 PovXev-oigOov, PovXev-olgOtjv, 
P. f3ovXEV-oLfi£da 9 PovXev-olgOe, PovXev-oivto. 

Perfect. I might have been advised. 

S. PE-dovXEV-fiEVOg EL7]V, EL7]g 9 EL7J, 

D. (3£-6ovX£V-fjLEVG), EiTjTOV, Elr\T7\V 9 

P. Pe-6ovXeV'{jLEVOL EL7JfJ,EV 9 EL7]TE 9 El7\GaV. 



VERBS. 258 
Aorist. I might be advised. 

S. 0OvXeV-d-£L7JV, j30V?^£V-Q-EC7]g, (3ovAev-0-£L7], 

D. Povkev-O-eirjTov, (3ovXev-6-£ir]T7]V 7 

P l3ov?*ev-d-EL7]uev fiovX£v-Q-£irfr£ fiovXEv-d-EtrjGav 
and .eifiev, and -sire, and -eiev. 

Future. I might he about to be advised. 

S. (3ovXev drj-o-oi- (3ovA£v-0r)-<7-oio, PovXev-Otj-g-oito, 
prgv, 

D. $ovX£vQr\-G-oi\±E- $ovXev-Qt]-g.oig- PovXev-O^-g-olg- 
Oov, Oov, Orjv, 

P. $ovX£V~dr\-o.oi\i£- PovXev-Otj g-olg- j3ovXEv.drj-G'OLvro. 
6a, Oe, 

Future Perfect. I might have been about to be advised, 

S. $E-bovX£v-G-oi\iT]v,$E-bovX£v-G-oio, (3e-6ovXev-g-oito, 
D. (3e-6ovXev-G-olfJLe- (3e-6ovXev-g-oig- f3£-6ov/.£v-G-OLG. 

Oov, Oov. Otjv, 

P. /3£-6ovXev-g-ol(ie~ P>£-£>OVXeV -G-OLgQe, (3£-6ovXeV'G-olvto. 

da, 



Subjunctive Mood. 
Present. I may be advised. 

S. {3ovX£v-G)jjLaL, /3ov?„£v-rj, (iovXev rjrat, 

D. PovXev-^iieOov, $ovXev-t]gQov, /3ovXev.tjg0ov, 
P. j3ovXEv-G)fj,£da, /3ovXev'7]g6£, /3ovX£v-G)vrai. 

Perfect. / may have been advised. 
S. (3£-6ov?^£v-fi£vog &, nf, 

D. /3£-6ovX£V-{l£VG), 7JT0V, fjTOV, 

P. fl£-6ovX£V-ll£VOL G)fl,£V, f]TE, G)Gl(y). 

Aorist. I may be advised. 

S. (3ovXev-6-(x), povXEV'Q-rjg, (3ovX£v-6-rj, 
D. (iovXev-O-TjTOv, PovXev-0-t]tov, 

P. PovXEv-O-tifjiEV, PovXev-O-tjte, j3ovX£v-6-o)Gc(v). 

Participials. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present. j3ov?^Ev-EGdac. to be advised. 
Perfect. 3£-6ovX£v-Gdat, to have been advised. 



254 VERBS* 

Aorist. to be advised. 

Future. fiovXev-drj-oeodaL, to be about to be advised. 
Fut. Perfect. Pe-dovXev-o-eoOa^ to have been about to be 

advised. 



Participles. 
Present. Being advised. 

N. [3ovXsv-6[isvog, /3ovXev-o[ji,£V7i, fiovXev-ofievov, 
G. {3ovXev-o[i£voVi j3ovX£V'Ofj,£vrig, j3ovX£v-o(ievov,&c. 

Perfect. Having been advised. 

N. (5€-6ovXev-[i,evog, fie-dovkev-jievrj, j3e-6ovXev-fievov, 
G. j3e-6ovX€V-jji£vov, j3£-6ovX£v-{i£vrjg, Pe-dovXev-fievov, 

<fec. 

Aorist. Having been advised. 

N. (3ovXev-0 sLg, (iovXev-Q-eloa, /3ovXev-6.ev, 
G, {3ovXev-Q-svTog 9 j3ov?.£v-d-£LGrjg, fiovXev-O-evTog, 

Future. About to be advised. 

N. PovXev-Qtj-g-o^e- povXevdrj-G-ofie. PovXev-drj-a-dfie- 
vog, vr\, vov, 

G. j3ovX£v~67]-o-ofi£- j3ov?i£v-d7]-G -ofie- (3ovXev-6r]-o-o[jL£- 
vov, vrjg, vov, <fec. 

Future Perfect. About to have been advised. 

N. j3E-6ovXev~0.6fis- fie-bovXev -a-ofAe- (3e-6ovXev a-dfie- 
vog^ vrj, vov, 

Q, j3£-6ovXev-o~-otts. J3e~6ovXev~0"0{i£- fie-6ovX£v-o-ofik*- 
vov, vrjg, vov, &c. 



REMARKS ON THE PRECEDING PARADIGM. 
I. Personal Endings Generally. 

PRIMARY FORMS. 

1. In treating of the personal endings, we must consider them in 
their appearance as primary or secondary forms ; that is, as they 
appear affected or unaffected by the modifications of tense and mood 
to which the verb in its full development is subjected. And first, of 
the primary forms ,» 



VERBS. 



255 



We have already remarked, that the conjugation in -pi appears 
to have been the original one in the Greek language. Supposing, 
then, that the primitive ending of the first person was -ui, the most 
natural method of avoiding an additional syllable, while the mean* 
ing of the ending was still retained, would be by keeping only the 
consonant, and omitting the final short vowel. This plan we find 
adopted in Latin, though su-m and inqua-m are the only verbs which 
exhibit it in the present indicative : in the other tenses and moods, 
m is the regular ending ; as in amabam, amem, &c. But in Greek 

can not, according to the laws of euphony, stand at the end of a 
word ; in shortening the ending, therefore, in the way we have sup- 
posed, the m must either have been struck out, or else some repre* 
sentative must have been substituted for it. We find both methods 
adopted. The former is the common one in the present tense, 
where we have i3ov?iev(j for j3ov?^evo-{ii, or /3ov?.evo-jj. : the latter, how- 
ever, appears in the secondary forms ; as, e6ov%evo-v for e-6ov?.etio-/ii. 
A similar change of fi and v may be observed in the accusative case 
of nouns. 

2. Proceeding on this supposition, wemay conclude that the long 
to in (SovXev-g) is brought in on the principle of compensation, which 
we so often find in the Greek and other languages. Thus, Bovaev-u 
will stand for (3ovXevo/j,l, as j3ov?.Eveic for (3ov/.eveoi, and (3ov?.evel for 
BovlEVEtL.—AJpon. the whole, we may safely conclude that the first 
person singular in Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit was always design 
nated by m, in the present indicative of the old forms of those lan- 
guages ; and, moreover, that this m was the element of the objective 
cases of the first personal pronoun. (Compare p. 242, Remark 3.) 

3. The middle or passive person-endings are distinguished from 
the active by a greater weight and fullness of form. The first per- 
son middle in Greek is ~/iai, in Sanscrit it is wanting, but the other 
persons exhibit a similar alteration by guna of the persons in the 
active. As the active -fit points to the instrumental me, so -pai 
must point to the locative -mayi, the person-ending being, in each 
instance, an abbreviation of the regular case of the pronoun. Thus, 
if di-dcj-fii means " a giving effected by me" or " 1 give" di-do-pai will 
signify, "a giving of which I am the object," i. e., " I give myself," or 
" I am given" the giver being presumed. 

4. The characteristic of the second person in Greek is -c, which 
we may consider as a shortened form of -at (which is retained only 
in the Doric ka-ai, though it appears consistently in the Sanscrit, 
Zend, and Sclavonic), just as the Latin and Greek -v, at the end 
of other tenses, are shortened forms of the original 



256 



VERBS. 



5. Besides this -c we find a termination the connection of 
which with the second personal pronoun has been often pointed out. 
In the imperative it appears as This ending corresponds to the 
Sanscrit -tha, -dhi. Buttmann will not allow, indeed, that -#a can 
bevconsidered a termination. (Ausf. Spr., § 78, 7, Anrn. 3 ) He 
joins it with the a-, which generally precedes it ; but the opinion of 
Bopp appears more worthy of reliance. (Consult page 258, Re- 
mark 3.) 

6. The characteristic of the second person passive in the Greek 
verbs in is -oai, as in Tide-Gat,. In the ordinary verbs this is con- 
tracted into -ei, as in ftovhevei for PovXeveccll. It is very remarka- 
ble, that, though all Greek verbs keep the full form in -fiat for the 
first person, the second person is shortened in this way ; and, con- 
versely, though in Sanscrit the full form of the second person is in- 
variably preserved, the first person of the passive is abbreviated 
quite analogously to the abbreviation of the second person in the 
passive of the Greek barytone verbs. Thus, we have bhar-e = <f>epo- 
fiai, but bhar-a-se = tpEp-et. 

7. Of the third person singular we have little to say, after what 
has been remarked in relation to the two preceding suffixes. In the 
Doric forms of verbs in -fii it is written -ti, which is either softened 
into -at in the ordinary dialects, or represented by i, as is the case 
in all the barytone verbs. 

8. The ordinary characteristic of the first person plural in Greek 
is -per, the older is -peg, which last is more analogous to the Latin 
-mus, and to the Sanscrit mas. If the supposition, already ad- 
vanced, that the singular -fit stands for -me, the instrumental of the 
pronoun, be correct, then -mes, the characteristic of the first person 
plural in old High German, as well in the secondary as in the primary 
forms, sets this matter more clearly before us. Thus, since the idea 
of " we" embraces that of " / + yow," we will find the first part of mfo 
contain a direct reference to the pronoun of the first person, while the 
last letter is to be regarded as the characteristic of the second per- 
son singular. So, in the Veda-dialects we find the form -ma-si as 
the termination of the first person plural of the active voice ; which 
shows the two pronominal elements at full length. 

9 In the passive and middle voices, the terminations of the dual 
and plural of the first person are in the oldest Greek forms -[jleoQov, 
-fiecrda, -(jleOev, the more recent forms being -/lce8ov, -jieda, where the 
a is omitted, as in the secondary form of the first person plural of 
the active verb in Sanscrit. It has been supposed, however, with 
great probability, that the dual form -pe-do-v, or the JEolic -pe-de-v, 



VERBS. 



257 



is the genuine characteristic of the first person plural of the passive 
voice. The first syllable then will represent the element of the first 
person singular, the &e- (#o, &a) is, as we have shown, one of the 
forms of the second person singular, and the final letter is -v, the 
oldest characteristic of the locative case, which is necessary to the 
passive voice. 

10. In Greek the second person plural of the active voice appears 
in a very mutilated state. It is invariably written -re, or in the 
dual -top. We are enabled, however, by the aid of the cognate lan- 
guages, to arrive at its real form. In Latin it is -tis or -tote. In 
Sanscrit we find -thas as a dual or older form, and -dha as the plural, 
which is mutilated like the Greek. A comparison of the Greek dual 
-rov, with the Latin plural -tis, and the Sanscrit dual -thas, leads us 
to conclude that it stands for -roc, as -/*ev stands for -fieg in the first 
person of the plural. We should, however, still be at a loss to ex- 
plain the ending, were it not for the aid afforded us by the sister- 
languages. It appears from the Sanscrit tha-s, that the second per- 
son dual is made up of a repetition of the second person singular, 
and this appears more clearly from a comparison of the Latin im- 
perative-ending -tote — tva-te, old Umbrian -tu-to. This view is con- 
firmed by the passive characteristic of the second person plural, 
which in the dual or older form is -c-do-v, and in which the repeti- 
tion of the second person singular is manifest. 

11. The third person plural offers difficulties considerably great- 
er than either of the other two. The genuine form of this per- 
son in the Greek active verb in -fit is -vri, which is still found in 
Doric remains. The passive and middle have -vrai. The Sanscrit 
presents U3 with the fullest analogy for this form of the third person, 
both in the active and other voices, the former being -nti, the latter 
-nte or -ntai. In Latin and old High German it is -nt in the active. 
But the most important analogy for this suffix is that furnished by the 
Celtic languages, and first pointed out by Prichard (Eastern Origin 
of the Celtic Nations, p. 134), who has clearly shown the connection 
subsisting between the Welsh pronoun hwynt, "they" (written ynt 
when used as a suffix), and the Welsh characteristics of the third 
person plural, namely, -nt. That the termination nt in Greek, Latin, 
Sanscrit, old German, &c, is a compound, is considered nearly cer- 
tain. Some derive it from a combination of the demonstrative roots 
na and ta. (Quarterly Rev., vol. lvii., p. 100.) Others regard the first 
consonant in the plural termination -nti as a representative of the 
demonstrative element -t, and make the whole a repetition of the 
third person singular, perfectly analogous to that of the other ner- 

Y2 



258 



VERBS. 



sons, which we have seen used to form their plural. The passive 
only differs hy that greater fullness of form, which in the pronouns 
distinguishes the locative form from the instrumental case. {Don- 
aldson, New Cratylus, p. 433-442.) 

SECONDARY FORMS. 

1. The secondary forms of the personal endings are generally 
shorter varieties of the primary forms. This is caused by the aug- 
mented length of the verb in the historical tenses. 

2. The first person singular is marked by -v, a representative of 
-fi, or -fit. We find this same letter standing for ~vti in the third 
person plural. It appears, indeed, to be the regular abbreviation of 
the third person plural ; for, though w T e have besides it a longer 
form in aav, as the termination of the third person in some of the 
historical tenses, both active and passive, we must consider this as 
a much less genuine suffix. Bopp and Buttmann regard this -aav 
as the third person plural of the substantive verb, an opinion from 
which Donaldson entirely dissents. (Buttmann, Ausf. Spr., § 107, 
Anm. 7, n. — Bopp, Annals of Oriental Lit., p. 60. — New Cratylus, 
p. 448.) 

2. Personal Endings specially. 

ACTIVE. 

1. The original ending of the first person, in -fit, remains only in 
verbs in -/lli, and in certain dialect-forms of the subjunctive, as em- 
ployed by the Epic writers. Thus, we have, as instances of the lat- 
ter, edojui, KTELvctfii, dydyofti, edeTicj/u, tvxcj/ii, Iko/llc 

2. The termination &a, already alluded to, remains in only a few 
forms ; as, olada, " thou knowest," of perfect olda : ydetoda and ydrjG- 
6a, pluperfect of olda : rjaOa, "thou wast," imperfect of eifii : etynoda, 
" thou saidst," imperfect of (pyjiL ; and yeiada, " thou wentest," imper- 
fect of el/u, " to go." 

3. As already remarked, this termination &a is rejected by Butt- 
mann, who maintains that $a can not be regarded in this light ; and, 
therefore, joins it with the a- which generally precedes it, thus mak- 
ing the ending to be -oda. The following considerations, however, 
will show this opinion to be erroneous. The two words in which 
this termination most frequently occurs are olada and fjoda, obvi- 
ously words of great antiquity. The first of these stands for old-Oa 
(the root being F*<5), the second for £-ea-6a (the root being ec-). In 
these two instances, then, &a is obviously the termination, as is-#£ 
in the imperatives la-di, tya-dt, l-6l, kKv-Qi, ory-di, &c. And, although 
the a can not be referred to the root in such forms as rldqoda, efna- 



VERBS. 



259 



6a, &c, they admit, nevertheless, of an easy explanation ; for, in 
the course of time, the pronominal nature of the termination would 
be forgotten or overlooked, and a, the ordinary mark of the second 
person, would be inserted on a mistaken analogy, just as w 7 e some- 
times find ola-dac for oic-da. This is Bopp's opinion. (Vergleich. 
Gramm., p. 655.) He formerly, however, thought with Buttmann. 
(Annals of Oriental Lit., i., p. 42. — Donaldson, New Cratylus, p. 436.) 

4. The original ending of the third person plural of the indicative 
of the primary tenses was -vtl. This was afterward changed to 
-vac. As, however, the laws of euphony do not tolerate v before a, 
the v was thrown out, and compensation was made fdr this by 
lengthening the preceding vowel. Thus, povXevo-vri = jSovlevo-vai 
=== povlevov-oi. The form commonly given as the original one, 
namely, -vrai, as, fiov\zvo-vTai, can not be defended. Bopp calls it 
a truly monstrous form. {Vergleich. Gramm., p. 274.) 

5. In the first person singular of the pluperfect active, we find, with 
the Attics, besides the form in eiv, another one in n, which has aris- 
en out of the Ionic ending of the pluperfect, namely, ea ; as, iSeSov- 
TievK-Tj for k6e6ov2,evK-eiv. In the third person plural, moreover, of 
the same tense, the mood-vowel el is regularly shortened into e ; as, 
eSeSovXev-K-e-aav for k6e6ov7\.ev-K.-EL-Gav. 

6. The first person singular of the present optative active has, in 
verbs in w, the ending pi ; as, flovlev-oi-fiL, /3ovXsva at-pi. But in 
the first and second aorists passive (according to the analogy of verbs 
in -fit) the ending is rjv. This rj remains through all the persons of 
all the numbers ; but in the dual and plural it can be thrown out ; 
as, -eln/Lcev — elfiev : etnre = elre : einaav = elev. Thus, we have 
TTaLdevdeln/LLev and naLdevdelfiev : fivvGdelnre and /LivnGdeire : (pavelnaav 
and (bavEtev, &c. 

7. The optative- ending rjv, nc, n, &c , 3d plur. ev (less frequently 
noav), occurs in verbs in o, under the name of the Attic opta- 
tive, in the following cases : 1. In the present and imperfect of con- 
tracted verbs very commonly ; as, Tif.i6nv, fyiloinv, (iiodiurjv. — 2. In 
all futures in u ; as, (pavoinv (Soph., Aj., 313), hpoin (Xen., Cyrop , iii., 
1, 14), from the futures (pavu, kpu. — 3. In the 2d pluperfect pretty 
often ; as, kunecbevyoinv (Soph , O. C., 840), TrpoEAnlvdoine (Xen., 
Cyrop , ii., 4, 17), rcenoLBoLrj (Aristoph., Acharn., 940). 

8. The form of the optative first aorist active, in eta, eiac, eie(p), 
&c, passed from the ^oHc into all the dialects. In Attic Greek, 
the endings eiac, ete(v), and 3d plur. eiav, were far more usual than 
the corresponding terminations in ate, ai, and atev, though these last 
were the regular ones. 



260 



VERBS. 



9. Among the Attics, the second person dual of the historical tens- 
es of the active voice is often found in 771; instead of ov ; as, eiTrernv 
{Plat., Symp., 189, c.) : enednfinGarnv (Id., Euthyd., 273, e) : yartiv 
{Id. ib., 294, e.) : eXeysrnv {Id., Leg., 705, d.), &c. 

10. Along with the simple form of the perfect subjunctive, and 
optative active, we frequently find a circumlocution, expressed by the 
participle of the perfect, and the subjunctive or optative of elvai, " to 
be," namely, d and elrjv : as, TrenaidevKcoe w, educaverim ; 7reTra1devK.de 
elnv, educavissem. These forms, however, seem to indicate a con- 
dition or state, rather than a simple action brought to a close. 



1. The middle and passive had originally, in the second person 
singular, the terminations Gat and go. These endings have been 
retained only in the perfect and pluperfect of the ordinary conjuga- 
tion, and in verbs in -fit. The Ionians, in all the other parts, drop- 
ped the g from these old endings, and formed eac, rjac, eo, ao. The 
common language contracted these endings, again, into y, ov, and co ; 
thus, 



2. In the second person singular, however, of the present and fu- 
ture of the indicative middle and passive, we find, with the Attics, 
the ending et instead of y. Porson maintains that this ending in ei 
ought always to be preferred in Attic Greek, not only because it 
serves to distinguish the indicative from the subjunctive, but also 
because analogy requires a short vowel in the indicative mood, and 
a long one in the subjunctive. We have followed his authority in 
the paradigm. (Porson, Praf. ad Hec, iv.) — On the other hand, the 
doctrine of the latest Continental scholars appears to be as follows : 
that t his ending in ei arose in the language of daily intercourse among 
the Attics, and passed from this into the written tongue ; that it is, 
therefore, regularly employed in the comedies of Aristophanes, but 
avoided by the tragic poets ; that Thucydides and Xenophon ab- 
stain from using it ; while other writers, as, for example, Plato and 
the orators, employ both forms. (Kuhner, § 116. — Id., Schulgramm., 
p. 112, ed. 2.) 

3. But whatever may be the true opinion with regard to this Attic 
termination in el, one thing at least is certain, namely, that three 



MIDDLE AND PASSIVE, ETC. 



OLD FORMS. 

(3ov?i,ev-£-Gai, 
(3ov2,£v-7}-Gat, 
k6ov\ev-e-GO, 
k6ovXevG-a-Go, 



IONIC. 

(3ovXev-e-ai, 
fSovTiev-n-ai, 
eSovTiev-e-o, 
eBovXevG-a-o, 



COMMON. 

PovTiev-n, 
f3ov?i£v-ri, 
eSovXev-ov, 
e6ov7ievg cj, 



VERBS. 



261 



particular verbs always have this ending. These verbs are /Sovao- 
uai, olo/xat, and oxbc{iai the future that is assigned to opdco. Thus, 

(3ovAouui, I wish ; (SovIel, thou wishest (but subj. j3ov?,y). 
oloiiac, I think; oiel, thou thmkest (J}Ut subj. oly). 
dipojuat, I shall see ; oipEi, thou wilt see. 

4. Along with the endings -erocav, -urocav, -odcoaav, in the third 
person plural of the imperative active, passive, and middle, we find also a 
shortened form in -ovtdv, -dvruv, and -gOuv, which, as it is used par- 
ticularly often by the Attics, has been called the Attic termination. 
This shortened Attic form agrees in all the tenses (except the per- 
fect) with the form of the genitive plural, of the participle of the 
same tense ; and the passive and middle aduv with the third person 
dual. Thus, 

Present Act., ftovlevsTOGav = j3ov?i£v6vTov. 

Perfect, TTE-KOiOkruaav — ttettolOovtuv (g. paTt.TiETZOidorQv). 

1 AoRIST, /3ovA£VG(LTCJGaV =r /3oV?i£V GUVTCOV. 

Pres. P. and M., {3ova€vf.g6ogu,v =■ povXeveoduv. 
Aorist Middle, GKEipuGduGav — oKEipdoduv. 

5. The perfect and pluperfect middle and passive append the per- 
sonal ending without any mood-vowel to the tense stem, and can 
not, therefore (except in a few cases to be mentioned hereafter), form 
a regular subjunctive and optative. Recourse is, therefore, had for 
this purpose to a circumlocution with the subjunctive and optative 
of eivat ; as, f3eSovAEVjLievoc u, (3e6ovaev/lievoc e!t]v, &c. 

6. The third person plural of the perfect and pluperfect of the in- 
dicative passive or middle ends, in the case of pure verbs, m-vrat and 
-vto ; as, 13e6ova£vvtcii, e6e6ov?ievvto. In impure verbs, however, 
whether mute or liquid, it can not be formed in this way, on account 
of the concurrence of so many consonants. Hence, in such verbs, 
this person is usually expressed by a circumlocution, consisting of 
the plural of the participle perfect, and the third person plural of the 
present and imperfect of the verb that, " to be" namely, elgl{v) and 
iiaav. The old and middle Attics, however, sometimes make use of 
the Ionic form, namely, arai, aro, in place of vrai, vto. The a in 
these endings is aspirated after a P- or K-sound ; but unasperated 
after a T-sound ; as, 

rplSo), I rub ; perf. TE-rpLfz-fiat, 3 plur. TErpi^araL (for TSTptSvTai), 

Pluperf. 3 plur. ETErpl^aro. 
7TAEKU, I plait ; perf -KE-KAEy-fiaL, 3 plur. ttettae^cltcll (for TrETrAEtcvrai). 
tuggo, I arrange ; perf re-ray-fiat, 3 plur. rera^arai (for rkrayvraC). 
CKevd^cj, I prepare ; perf. k-GKevaa-fiai, 3 plur. kaKEvdSarat (for cgkev- 
advrai). 

XoplZu, I separate ; perf Ke-x&piG-iiai, 3 plur. KEx^ptoarai (for /ce^cj- 

pLdvTCLL). 



262 



VERBS. 



ACCENTUATION OF THE VERB. 

I. Fundamental Rule. The accent goes as far back from the end 
of the icord toward the beginning as the nature of the final syllabic will 
allow : thus, {3ov?.eve, j3ov7ievopai, nave, tvttte, (3ov"kevoov, rcavGov, 
rvipov. But, {3ov?ieveic, (3ov7ievelv, {3ovaevov, j3ov?.evG), &c. 

Remark 1. As the root-syllable of the verb contains the fun- 
damental idea, the tendency, in pronouncing, is to throw the ac- 
cent either on this syllable, or as near to it as the final syllable 
will allow. 

Remark 2. The diphthongs at and oi, when not closed by a 
consonant (as aiv, oiv, atg, otc), are considered short in accentua- 
tion. And the reason of this lies in the short pronunciation of 
these diphthongs. In the optative, however, the endings ai and 
oi form an exception to this, and are considered as long, oi be- 
ing contracted here for oie, and ai for ate : thus, f3ov?ievo{iai, 
but Sovlevaac (3 sing. 1 aor. opt. act.). 

II. The above fundamental rule prevails also in composition, with 
the limitation, however, that the accent of the verb must not pass be- 
yond that syllable of the word prefixed which teas accented before com- 
position ; nor beyond its place in a pre-existing compound, or upon a 
pre-existing augment : thus, (pipe, rrpocQepe : tievye, enoevye aelttEj 
a~6/,Ei-E : olSa, cvvoida : dfiftev, evdujuev : 7j[xat, fcddmiai : but rrpog- 
elxov like efyov : rcapsaxov like eox ov '• ^bVyov like rjyov : irpogrjKov 
like 7/kov : aTTELpyov like sipyov, &c, not trpogeixov, napeexov, &c. 



EXCEPTIONS TO THE FUNDAMENTAL RULE. 

(A.) The accent rests on the last syllable in the following forms : 

1. In the second aorist of the infinitive active, as a circumflex ; 
and in the masculine and neuter singular of the participle of this same 
tense, as an acute ; as, Xitteiv, ?utt6v, alttov : and also in the second 
person singular of the second aorist of the imperative active of the 
following five verbs, elite, e7Me, Evpi, XaSs, and 16s. 

2. In the second aorist imperative middle, as a circumflex ; as, 
AaSov, &ov (from Tldnpc.) 

Remark 1. In composition, the accent, in the imperative (not 
in the participials) of the second aorist active and middle of all 
verbs, moves back, according to the fundamental rule ; as, l/c- 
6a?^E, e%ea6e, ekSu/.ov, E/cdog, ekSote, airodoc, psrddog (not atrodoc, 
fiETadoc : see § II), pErddors • but ek^oXeIv, EtcSaAwv, ekaltzelv, 
kgeM&Vf (Sec. 



VERBS. 



263 



Remark 2. In verbs in p.t, however, the accent in the singu- 
lar of the second aorist imperative middle moves back only 
when the verb is compounded of a dissyllabic preposition, but 
remains if the verb is compounded of a monosyllabic one ; 
though in the dual and plural it is drawn back always ; as, 
anodov, tcarddov, anodov, npodov, h6ov, d<f>ov, npodoGOs, elcOeoOe, 
u(peode, KardOeade. 

3. In all participles in c, genitive -roc, and always as an acute ; 
thus, for example, in all participles active of verbs in fu, as well as 
in those of the first and second perfect active ; and the first and 
second aorist passive ; as, /3e6ovXevn6c, gen. -oroc : povlevOeic, gen. 
-evtoc : lardq, gen. -dvrog ; TiOeic, gen. -evtoc : dcdovg, gen. -ovroc : 
Seikvvc, gen. -vvroc. — But from this we must except the first aorist 
participle active, which is always paroxyton ; as, povlevcag. 

4. In the first and second aorist subjunctive passive, as a circum- 
flex ; as, fiovlevdib. 

(B.) The accent rests on the penult in the following forms : 

1. In the infinitive, perfect, middle, or passive, 1st aorist active 
and second aorist middle ; farther, in all infinitives in vat, and thus 
in all forms of the infinitive active of verbs in -fit, as well as in the 
infinitive of the first and second aorists passive, and perfect active ; 
as, TETV(j)6aL, j3e6ov?ievcrdcu, TETt/uiiodai, KEtytlrjodai : tyvXa^at, flovlev- 
cai, TLfifjcai, (j) uJfi aa i, [itodtioat : XtrtEoQat : iordvat, ndevai, didovai, 
deiicvvvai, crr^vat, -&Etvat, dovvai : povTiEvdijvat, Tvnijvat : j3s6ov?i£VKEvai. 

2. In all optative forms in at. (Consult Remark 2, page 262.) 

Remark. The three similarly-spelt forms of the first aorist of 
the infinitive active, first aorist imperative middle, and the third 
person singular of the first aorist optative active, are distin- 
guished by the accentuation in the following manner. When 
they consist of three or more syllables, and have the penult long 
by nature, we have 

1st aor. inf. act., f3ov7i£VGai, ) 1st aor. imper. mid., fSovTiEvaat, ) 
" " " noirjoat. ) " 11 " noincat. J 

1st aor. opt. act., /3ov?i£VGai, ) 

" *' " 7T0l7/(jai. ) 

But if the penult is short by nature, or long by position only, 
the first aorist infinitive active agrees w r ith the third person of 
the first aorist of the optative active ; as, §v\d%at : but the first 
aorist imperative middle is <pvla^at. 

3. In the participle of the perfect middle or passive ; as, irsnai- 
devfitvoc, -fievrj, -fievov : rerifirj/ievoc : netyikniiivoc : rervfi/zevoc. 



264 



VERBS. 



MORE PARTICULAR DEFINITION OF THE AUGMENT 
AND REDUPLICATION. 

1. We have already considered the augment and redu- 
plication generally. It is now necessary to add a more 
particular explanation. 

2. As before remarked, there are two augments, namely, 
the syllabic and temporal ; and all the historical tenses, 
that is, the imperfect, pluperfect, and aorist, take the one or 
other of these two kinds of augment, but retain it in the in- 
dicative only. 

3. The perfect has a peculiar augment of its own, called 
the reduplication ; and this same augment passes over to the 
pluperfect also, and, in the case of the latter tense, has 
then the regular augment prefixed. 

1. Syllabic Augment. 

1. The syllabic augment takes place in verbs whose 
stem begins with a consonant, and consists in prefixing e 
to the stem in the imperfect and aorist, but to the redupli- 
cation in the pluperfect. By this means the word is aug- 
mented or increased (augetur) by one syllable ; as, /3ovXevg) : 
imperfect e-6ovXsvov : aorist e-6ovXevaa : pluperf. k-6e6ov- 
Xevfceiv* 

2. The perfect, together with this £, takes the initial con- 
sonant of the stem, which it places, by a species of repeti- 
tion, before the e, and is thus, in like manner, increased by 
a syllable ; as, fle-6ovXevfca. 

3. When the stem begins with p, this letter, as before 
mentioned, is doubled after the addition of the augment ; as, 
piiTTG), I throw : imperfect eppinrov : aorist eppiipa. 

Remark 1. The three verbs /3ov?.ofiai, I wish; dvva/uai, I 
can ; and fzsXTio), I intend, often take n instead of e as an aug- 
ment in the Attic dialects ; as, eBovlo/unv and ^dovTiSjunv": aorist 
kSovTirjdrjv and TjSovTirjdnv : kdvvafinv and fidwdjunv : aorist edvvfj- 
6nv and qdvvr/dnv (but always kSvvdadnv) : efjceHov and rjpeXkov 
(but the aorist very seldom rjfjieXkrjGa). 



VERBS. 



265 



Remark 2. In the Epic and Ionic dialects, however, the aug- 
ment in 77, in the case of these three verbs, very seldom ap- 
pears. The tragic writers, also, commonly employ the regular 
augment in e : in (3ovlo/j.ai they always do this, and so almost 
always the earlier prose writers, and Aristophanes. 

Remark 3. The pluperfect often appears in the Attic writers 
without the augment e. This occurs in compounds when the 
preposition ends with a vowel ; in simple verbs, when a vowel 
not susceptible of elision precedes ; as, icaraSeS^KeGav (Xen., 
An., v., 15): KarqdeSpafiij neoav (Id., Hell., v., 3, 1): tcara/J- 
Aetnro (Id., Cyr., iv., 1, 9) : KuraTre-aruKei (Th., iv., 90) : ai avv- 
dijKat yeyevnvro (Xen., Cyr., iii., 2, 27, according to the best 
MSS.). — In the imperfect and aorist, how r ever, the omission of 
the syllabic augment occurs only with the poets, and even here 
only very seldom. An exception, however, to this takes place 
in the imperfect xpqv, which is used along with expnv, even in 
prose. 



2. Temporal Augment. 
1. The temporal augment takes place in verbs whose 
stem begins with a vowel, and consists in lengthening the 
first vowel of the stem by means of a contraction which 
this vowel makes with the e or the old vowel- augment, to 
which we have already referred (page 236, § ix.). Thus, 



a becomes 




as. 


1 'ayo), 


Imp. rjyov, 


Perf. rjx a ' 


e 


V> 


(< 






" 7]A7TLK,a. 


1 " 


l\ 


u 


'TfcerevG), 


" 'Ifcersvov, 


" 'IfcerevKa. 


" 


w; 


a 


dfitXeo), 


" (bjilXovv, 


" d)jJ,LA7]fCa. 


v " 


v; 


a 




" f v6pi£ov, 


" 'vdpifca. 


at " 




n 


alpeo), 


" xjpovv, 


" qpr]fca. 


av " 


mi 


> 


avXso), 


" rjvXovv, 


" 7]VA7]K,a. 


01 


^; 




olfCTL^G), 


" CptCTL^OV, 


£4 cotCTitca. 



Remark 1. The contraction of ee into 77, and of eo into gj, de- 
viates from the common rule (page 22) ; while that of ea into 77, 
and of ee into ec (ty^, e-e%ov, eixov), follows that rule. 

Remark 2. Those verbs are incapable of augment which be- 
gin with 77, 1, v, u, ov, or et ; as, rjTT&onai, I am worsted ; perfect, 
7jTTri{iaL\ 'tiroo, I press ; aorist, y lizidaa\ 'vttvoo, I lull to sleep; 
aorist, 'vttvgjoo. : w^f/Ww, I benefit ; imperfect, uqeaovv : ovrufa, 
Z 



266 



VERBS. 



I wound ; imperfect, ovra&v. — The verb eIku^u, I conjecture, 
forms, however, an exception, since it is augmented, though 
rarely ; as, elua&v and r/Kafyv : eluaaa and f/Kaaa : duacfiai and 
yKaa/xai. This augmenting of eiwfa is regarded as an Attic 
peculiarity. 

Remark 3. Those verbs, also, whose stem begins with ev 
generally take no augment ; as, evx^fiat, I pray; imperfect, ev- 
XOjuvv, more rarely nvxo[irjv : but perfect nvyfcat. 

Remark 4. In explaining the principle of the temporal aug- 
ment, we have followed Matthiae, Buttmann, and others, by 
supposing that the old augment-vowel e coalesces with the ini- 
tial vowel of the verb. Kiihner, however, makes the change 
of vowel called the temporal augment arise from doubling the 
initial vowel of the verbal-stem : thus, ad becomes rj ; as, ayo, 
rjyov (i. e., hayov) : ee becomes rj ; as, £/Uy£cj, t]\txl^ov (i. e. y H\- 
tti^ov) : II becomes I ; as, cKerevcj, 'Iketsvov (i. e., ItKerevov), &c, 
and he refers, in support of this opinion, to the Sanscrit ; as, 
ddam for aadam, from ad, " to eat." This reference to the San- 
scrit, however, proves too much, since the historical tenses in 
that language are all marked by an augment a, and the vowel 
in question does not belong to any particular verb, but is com- 
mon to the vihole number. Whether this a be the same in 
origin with the Greek augment e, is a point not yet determined, 
though such a view of the matter is not by any means improb- 
able. Bopp identifies it with the negative a-, and considers it 
as implying a negation of present time ; a meaning, however, 
which Grafe justly remarks (p. 103, note 57) would do for the 
future as well as the past. Donaldson thinks that the Greek 
augment £ is a pronominal root, denoting distance or remote- 
ness. {New Cratylus, p. 457.) 

2. Verbs beginning with a and a succeeding vowel have 
a instead of rj ; as, 'arjdtZofiai, I feel disgust ; imperfect, 
9 di]6i^6fjL7jv. But those beginning with a, av, or oi, and a 
succeeding vowel, are quite incapable of augment ; as, 'a/oj, 
I perceive ; imperfect, 'aiov : avalvco, I dry ; imperfect, 
avaivov : olatci£(*), I steer ; imperfect, oiani^ov. But the 
verb olofiai, I think, takes the augment ; as, cooutjv. 

3. A few, also, beginning with oi and a following con- 
sonant do not receive the augment; as, oljiQvpeG), I guard 
the house : aorist, of Kovprjoa. 



VERB?. 



267 



4. The following eleven verbs beginning with s have the 
augment in the form of et instead of rj : namely, 

edoj, i" allow ; imperfect, elov : aorist, elaoa. 

edi^o), I accustom, to which eloda, I am accustomed 

(from e$G), Epic), belongs. 
elaa, I placed (poetic); aor. mid. etadfjLrjv, I founded. 

(Stem ed.) 

eXioou, I wind ; aor. elXi^a : aor. pass. elXlxOqv 

perfect zi\iy\Lai. 
?/U;g), I draw ; aor. ecXfcvoa (from the radical eXfcvcj). 
elXov, I took (from the radical eXu), assigned as aorist 

to alpEG). 

eno[jLai, I follow ; imperfect, eiix6\lt\v. 
epyd^ofiat, I work ; aor. pass. etpyaaOrjv : perf. elpyao- 
fiat. 

epno), kpirvfa, I creep, I go ; imperf. elpnov : aorist 
elpnvaa. 

eartaG), I entertain ; perf. eiaridfca. 
g%6), J have ; imperf. elxov. 

5. The following verbs take the syllabic instead of the 
temporal augment ; as, 

dyvv\ii, I break ; aorist, eaga, &c. 

dXicKo\iai, I am taken ; perf. edXufca (and also rjX(*)ica), 

J have been taken, 
avddvco, I please (Ionic and poetic) ; imperf. edvdavov: 

2 aor. eddov, &c. 
ovpeo), imperf. eovpovv, <fec. 

d)0eo), I push ; imperf. su)6ovv, &c, sometimes with- 
out augment; as, diodovvro (Th. 9 ii., 84): 
et-Gyodnaav (Xen., Hell., iv., 3, 12). 

d)veoj.iai, I buy ; imperf. kuvov\Lr\v : aor. l(x>vr\ad\Lr\v : 
perf. euvnuai. 

6. The verb eoprd^o), I celebrate a feast, takes the aug- 
ment in the second syllable ; as, eupra^ov. This occurs in 
the following forms of the pluperfect : 



268 



VERBS. 



(Stem elfccd) 2 perf. eoina, I am like, I seem ; pluperf. 
e&fcetv. 

eXTtojiaL, I hope ; 2 perf. eoXua, I hope ; pluperf. 

(Stem epyoj), I do ; 2 perf. sopya: pluperf. e&pyeiv. 
7. The following verbs have both the temporal and syl- 
labic augment ; as, 

opaw, I see ; imperf. edjpcov : perf. eupaica, k&pafiat. 
dvocyco, I open ; imperf. aveuyov : aor. aveu^a (infin. 

dvol^at), &c. 
aXiofcofiat, I am taken ; aor. e&Xojv and rjXuv. 



REDUPLICATION. 

1. Reduplication consists in the repetition of the first 
consonant of the stem in connection with e. It denotes a 
completed action, and hence is prefixed to the perfect ; as, 
Xe-Xvtca, I have loosed, from Xvo) : to the future perfect; as, 
Kz-KQCi\Lr\Go\iai, I shall have been adorned, from rcoop,£G) : 
and to the pluperfect, which, as an historical tense, takes 
also the augment e before the reduplication ; as, k-6e-6ov- 
Xevneiv. It continues throughout all the moods, and also 
in the participial s. 

2. Reduplication takes place only when the stem of the 
verb begins with a single consonant, or with a mute and 
liquid. The exceptions to this rule are, verbs beginning 
with p, yv, (3X, and most of those beginning with yX, which 
take merely the simple augment ; but from those beginning 
with (3X we must except, again, /3e6Xafifiai, from (SXaTrro), 
I hurt : (3e6Xaa(f)rjU7]Ka, from $Xao$r]\Li(j), I slander : (3e- 
6XdarrjKa (also edXaorrjica), from pXaardvo), I germinate. 

3. The following are examples of reduplication : 

%vu, 1 loosen ; perf. H-Ivkcl, pluperf. k-le-livKEiv. 

t9-vcj, I sacrifice ; " Ti-dvua, i( e-re-OvKecv. 

<f)v-evG), I plant ; " 7T£-<pvTevKa y " e-(f>e-<pvT£vtcetv. 

XQpevu, I dance ; *' Ke-xopevna, " e-Ke-xopevKSLv. 



VERBS. 



269 



ypatyu, 

7TVEG), 

Mao, 

pLKTO, 



I write ; 
I bend ; 
I judge; 
I breathe ; 
I break in pieces ; 
I throw ; 
yvopifa, 1 make known ; 
pXatcevG), I am lazy ; 
yXv(j)co, I carve ; 



perf. ys-ypa^a, 



pluperf. k-ye-ypacbecv. 

" k-KE-K?LLKElV. 



KE-KplfCQ, " E-KE-KpLKELV. 

TTE-TTVEVKa, " E-7TE-7TVEVKEIV. 

TE-dhaKa, " E-TE-dXiLKELV. 

Ippitya, " kpfi'KpELV. 

k-yvopina, " k-yvopiKEiv. 

E-STiUKEVKCL, " E-SlatCEVKElV. 

E-yTivtya, " E-yXvcbELv. 

4. Reduplication is omitted (except in the above-mention- 
ed cases of verbs beginning with p, yv, j3A, yX) if the stem 
of the verb begins with a double consonant, or with two sim- 
ple consonants which are not a mute and a liquid ; thus, 

fyXoo), I emulate ; perf. E^rjXcjKa. 

i-evoo), I entertain as a guest ; " e-^evojKa. 
ipdXXcj, I play on the harp ; " e-tyaXica. 

OTTELpG), I SOW ; " E-OUapKCL. 

kti^o), I found ; " e-fcrifca. 

TTTvaooj, I fold ; " e-7TTV%a. 

Remark. The two verbs fii[ivfjoKu (stem ]uva-), I remind, and 
Krdofiai, I acquire, take reduplication, although their stems be- 
gin with two consonants which are not a mute and a liquid 
(namely, fiv- and kt-) : thus, /xs-juvvfiat, KE-Krvfiat. The regular 
form EKTTjfiaL is Ionic, but is found, nevertheless, in ^Eschylus 
also (Prom. V., 792), and sometimes even in Plato. In Thu- 
cydides, moreover (iii., 62), we ought to read, with the best 
MSS., TvpocEKTrjfiEva. 

5. Five verbs beginning with a liquid do not repeat this 
letter, but take el as an augment, namely, 

Xafiddvo), I take ; perf. EiXrfya. 

Xayxdvcj, I receive by lot ; " EiXr\xa. 

Aeyo), ovXXEyo), I collect ; " ovvEiXo'xa. 

pEG) (radical), I say ; H Etprjtca. 

fXEtpofiai, I obtain a share ; " ELfxaprat, it is alloted. 

Remark. AcaTiEyofxat, I converse, has the perfect 6tEiKEy\iaL, 
although the simple Myo, in the signification of to say, always 
takes the regular reduplication : UlEyfiaL, " dictus sum" (per- 
fect active wanting). 

Z2 



270 



VERBS. 



ATTIC REDUPLICATIOxN. 

1. Several verbs beginning with a, e, or o, repeat, the 
first two letters of the stem before the temporal augment, 
in the perfect and pluperfect. This augment is called Attic 
reduplication. 

2. Sometimes, but only very seldom, the pluperfect takes 
a new augment in addition to this reduplication. It is regu- 
larly done, however, in 7jK-7]fc6eiv. 

3. The verbs which take this reduplication in the Attic 
dialect are the following : 

t. Verbs the second syllable of whose stem is short by na- 
ture ; as, 

dXeco, co, I grind. 
[dX-rjXefca], aX-'fjXeofiai, 
[ah-rjXeiceiv'], dX-rjXeafjLTjv. 

Efieco, to, I vomit. 
k\i-r\\i£Ka, k\i-T]\iEO\iai, 
k\L-r\\itniuv, sfi-TjpeGfirjv. 

dpoto, co, I plough. 
\ap-f]pona\, dp-rjpofiai, 
[dp-rjpoKeiv], dp-7\po\ir\v . 

{o\l6co) bfivvfii, I swear. 
d(i cofiotca, b\L-to\Loo\iai, 
6[i-cofi6fceiv, 6\L-co\i6o\ir\v \ 

iX&y%to, I convict. 
\kX'7}Xeyxa~\, * eX'TjXeyjuiai, 

[e X-r\ A syxeiv] , eX-rjXeyfirjV 

eXdco (sXavvco), I drive. 
eX-r]Xafta, eX-rjXafiat, 
eX-7]?idfCELV, kX-r\Xd\Lr\v. 

(dXsco) oXXv/ii, I destroy. 
6X-toXetca, P er f- % oX-ojXa (oAw), 

6X-toXefeeiv, plup. 2 oX-coheiv. 

dpvrrco, I dig. 
6p topv%a, dp copvyfiai and tofvyfiar, 

dp copvxeiv, dp-topvyurjv and w/^yjt/^. 



VERBS. 



271 



Remark 1. So, also, el'iaoo, I wind, [kX-yhtxa], kX-yXtyfiai 
(with rough breathing thrown, off), and eiXiyfiai : ofa (stem odu), 
/ emit a smell, od-oda : (j>epG) (stem £vekw), I bear, ev-^voxa, kv- 
7}vey[iai : eadlcj (stem eSu), I eat, ed-f/doica, eS-rjdeufLat : ayu),. I 
lead; perf. usually ^a, more rarely ay-rjoxa (softened down 
from ay-7jyoxa), but the perf. middle and passive fjyfiai. 

Remark 2. The forms given in brackets in the preceding list, 
and also in the one that follows, are forms not occurring in the 
earlier writers. Those, on the other hand, in parentheses are 
radical ones. 

2. Verbs which have a vowel long by nature in the second 
syllable of (he stem,, and shorten it after the addition of the 
reduplication ; except only ipetdo), " / prop," which makes 
epTjpeifca, eprjpeiGfiai. 



aXel(j)(x), I anoint, 

aX-rjXiipEiv, aX-r\ki\L\Lr\v . 

(eXevOg)), epxofiai, I come. 

eX-rjXvda, , 

eX-rjXvdetv, . 

ayeipo), I assemble. 

ay-rjyepica, ay-rjyepfiai, 
ay~7jy£pti£LV, dy-rjyepfjtrjv. 



dfcovo), I hear. 

afc-rjfcoa, rjtcovGfiat, 
7]K-7]n6etv, rjtcovafiTjv. 

epecSo), I prop. 

sp-rjpEiica, ep-ripeiGfiai, 
ep-rjpelfceiv, Ep~r\pEiG\ir\v. 

eyelpo), I awaken. 

[sy-rjyeptca], ey-qyepfiai, 
[ey-Tjyepiceiv], Ey-7\yip\Lr\v. 



Remark 1. So, from kyetpu, besides, we have the 2d perfect 
eyprjyopa (for euphony' sake, instead of ky-rjyopa) : 2d pluperfect 
eyprjyopeiv. 

Remark 2. Two verbs form even the 2d aorist with this re- 
duplication, with this distinction, however, that the vowel of 
the reduplication receives the temporal augment in the indica- 
tive only, and the vowel of the stem remains unaltered ; as, 
ayo, I lead; 2d aor. rjy-ayov, infln. ayayeiv. 

(jtipu, I bear ; 2d aor. rjv-eyKov (root ey/c), infin. eveyKelv. 
It must be observed, however, that aycj forms in this way 
only the second aorist active and middle ; as, yyayov, yyaySfir/v : 
but (j)£po) has it in all its aorists ; as, fjveynov, 7]veyna, yvexdnv. 



272 



VERBS. 



AUGMENT IN COMPOSITION. 

1. First Rule. Verbs compounded with prepositions 
take the augment between the preposition and the verb. 

2. Hence, prepositions ending with a vowel, except nspi 
and npo, suffer elision. 

3. The preposition rrpo often blends with the augment, 
by means of a crasis, into npov, and ev and avv again take 
their v, which had been assimilated to the following con- 
sonant, or thrown away, or altered ; as, 

dno-ddXXo), imperf. drr-£6aXXov, perf. aTTO-be&Xrjua. 

TTEpt-ddXXco, " nept-sdaXXov, " rrepi-6e6X7]fca. 

npo-daXXo), ) " npo-£6aXXov,) " 7Tpo-6e6Xr]fca. i 

npo-ddXXc*), > " rrpovdaXXov, ) " 7Tpo-6e6Xrjfca. > 

kfji-daXXo), M ev>e6aXXov, w Efi-dedXTjica. 

ey-yiyvofiat, " ev-eytyvdfirjv, " ey-yeyova. 

crv-fftfgva^a), " cvv-£Gfceva%ov, " ovv-eofcevafca. 

GVp-ptTTTG), " OVV-epptTTTOV, " ovv-£ppL(j)a. 

ovX-Xeyb), " cvv-eXeyov, " (ivv-eiAo^a. 

4. Second Rule. Verbs compounded with 6\>c take the 
augment in the following manner: 1. At the beginning, if 
the stem of the simple verb begins with a consonant, or a 
vowel not capable of the temporal augment. 2. In the mid- 
dle, if the stem of the simple verb begins with a vowel 
capable of the temporal augment ; as, 

dvg-TVX£(*>, imperf. e-dvgrvxovv, perf. 6e-6vgrvx^fca 9 

pluperf. £-de-dvgTV%riK£LV. 
dvg-G)TTSG), imperf. e-dvgG>novv. 

dvg-apeored), " 6vg->7jpearovv, perf. dvg.r}peOT7)?ea. 

5. Verbs compounded with ev may follow both the above 
modes, mentioned under rule second. They commonly, 
however, avoid the augment in the first case, and evepyerec* 
also in the latter ; as, 

£v-tvx£(*), I am fortunate ; imperf. rfi-rv'xpvv usually 
ev-rvx ovv * 



VERBrf. 



273 



ev-G)XEO(icu, I banquet; imperf. ev-to^ovj^v. 
ev-epyereo), I do well to ; imperf. sv-7]pyeTOvv, perf. \ 
ev-r]pyeT7}fca, usually ev-epyerovv and ev-epye- > 
TTjtca. / 
6. Third Rule. The remaining compound verbs take 
the augment at the beginning ; as, for example, 

(xvdoXoyed), I relate, kfivdoXoyovv, fiefivdohoyrjfca. 
olfcodofieo), I build, g)ko66[iovv, (bfcodofiTjfca. 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE AUGMENT OF COMPOUND 
VERBS. 

1. Some verbs, compounded with a preposition, take the 
augment in both places, namely, before the stem, and also 
before the preposition. Thus, 

ainrexofiai, imperf. yfLireixfyvv or dfineiX) aor. 2 q/LnrecxfyvV' 



avixoiiai, 
dfi(j>Lyvoecj, 
uvopdoa), 
kvoxfeo), 
irapoiviu, 



TjveLxofJLrjVy " rjveaxofJLrjv. 
7]fi(j>eyv6ovv and 7)[i<f>iyv. . 



i]vC)pdovv, perf. yv6p8uKa. 

7}v6x?lovv, " ijvuxTirjKa. 

kizapuvovv, " Tcenap&vTiKa. 

2. Three other verbs, which are not compounded with a 
preposition, but derived from other compound words, follow 
the analogy of those enumerated in the preceding observa- 
tion ; as, 

dictLTacj (from 6cacra) t imperf. eScyruv and dirfruv, perf. dedijrrjKa. 
Sia/coveo (from didnovo^), " edtTjicovovv and ) " dednjKovrjKa. 

6lt}k6vovv, 5 

ani<f>iG6r}Teu> (from afityicSrjTTis), imperf. ^fi^eaB^Tovv and 71(i§lg6t)tovv. 

3. Several verbs, though compounded with a preposition, 
yet form an exception to rule first, by taking the augment 
before the preposition ; they having in some degree acquired 
the force of simple verbs ; as, 

afMbievvvfit, aorist r)^Uca 7 perf. 7j/x(j)teGfiai. 

kmoTCLfjLai, imperf. TjmGTdfiTjv. 

d(j>tr}(ii, u d<f>lovv and rjfyiovv, or rjtyleLV. 



274 



VERBS. 



Kadifa, imperf. hftadt&y, and old Att. Kadl^ov, perf. KtnaBiKa. 
HadeSo/tat, " sKade^dfiijv (and Kadc&firjv without augment). 
tcddij/Ltai, " k,Kadri[L7]V (and KaOrjuriv). 
tcadevdo, " kicadevdov, seldom Kadrjvdov. 

4. Those verbs, also, which are formed, not by the com- 
position of a simple verb with a preposition, but by deriva- 
tion from a word already compounded, form an apparent 
exception to rule first ; as, 

havTtoofiai (from hvavrioq), imperf. rjvavTLovjiriv. 
avTiSiKiu (from avTidiKog), " 7]vtl5lkovv. 
kfiTTedou (from efiiredog), " Tjfxnedovv, 

5. Many verbs, however, which evidently arise merely 
from derivation, were regarded by the best writers as if they 
originated from the composition of a simple verb with a 
preposition. Thus, we find napavofieo), imperf. iraprjvo- 
[xovv and rrapevofiovv : aor. napr\v6\Lr\oa : perf. napavevo- 
(irjica, although it does not come from napd and avowed), or 
vofieo), both which verbs do not exist, but from the com- 
pound term rrapdvofiog. So, kyxEipiu (from the radical 
£yX ec P°s)> imperf. kvtyj.ipovv : emOvfieo) (from rad. emdv- 
j^oc), imperf. enedvfiovv : Karrjyopeci) (from Karrffopog), 
imperf. KarTjyopovv, &c. 



PURE CONTRACTED VERBS IN J2. 

1. Pure Contracted Verbs are, as we have already 
seen, those verbs which have for their characteristic either 
a, e, or o, and contract this with the mood- vowel that fol- 
lows. 

2. Contraction takes place only in the present and im- 
perfect of the active, middle, and passive, because only in 
these tenses does a vowel follow the characteristic vowel. 

3. The contractions which take place in these tenses 
are the following : 

Verbs in do) contract aa>. ao, and aov into (*) ; as, ri[id-(o f 



VERBS. 



275 



nj.i(o : Tifid-ofAEV, TificjfjLEv : ri(id-ovac f Ti\i(x)Oi. Otherwise 
they contract into a ; as, r^a-e, rlfxa. They also sub- 
scribe i ; as, ri\La-0L\ii, ti\i<1>\li : rifjid-eig, rifiag. 

Verbs in so contract ee into ei, and so into ov ; as, (pche-e, 
(f)iXet : (piXe-ofiev, cptXovfiev. Otherwise the characteristic 
e is absorbed into the vowel or diphthong that comes after : 
as, (fyiXe-G), <piXQ> : (friXe-eig, tyiXelc; : §i\e-ol\ii, (piXolfit. 

Verbs in og) contract o, with a long vowel, into G) ; as, 
St]X6-g), drjXoj : but with a short vowel, or ov , into ov ; as, 
drjX6~8Te, drjXovre : drjXo-ovm, drjkovGi. Otherwise into 
01 ; as, drjXo-qg, drjXolg. In the infinitive, oecv is contracted 
into ovv. 



276 



VERBS. 



C5 
g 

PQ 

Q 
W 

O 
W 

O 

o 

w 
« 

s 

En 
O 

a 
o 

i— i 
Q 

2 



I- 



p 

O 
O 

S 

w 
> 

< 

O 
»— i 

P 



w 
o 

o 

i> 

w 

H 
O 
<1 



H 

Eh 
W 

a 



« - . . 

^ if if 
2P v 3 xo 

■§ 1 1 ' 

OQ 



C3 Xo v O 



'3 o o 



W 

t—i 

< 
S 

Q «3 b § 



»3 *3 13 



► - 3 

3 3 V ? 



Ad" 



c 10 b 

Ac? v g 



VERBS. 



277 



'3^ © o 



to 



3 3 



O '3 o o 



is 

ft- 



© O C 

v S v£ v C 



=4. 
*3- o < 



'3" '3 '3" 



to 



5 £ 



v 3 ^ ^3 



£ °* 
to to 
V S ^ v ?> 
N o c o 



5* ft* ** 

1^1 



3 3 3~ 



o 



o 

"—5 

G9 

P 
CO 



CO 



O 



s 

2 



fa 



v ?^? to 



'3 o 



'3-'S © 



© o v ? 
v ? to 



'3- S 'S 



3 



5? 5tf 
Coo 
vg 



'3- © < 



*? N ? to 

~ ei ri 



♦3 '3 '3 



3 3-1 



ft 



A A 



M C 53 

S to to 



C3 53 ts 

in 

v ? v ? to 



'3 '3 '3 



* » 3 
3 3 x o 

^ to 
~ si <ri 



278 



VERBS. 



& & & 



! 

eg 
to 



* 



p 

O 
O 

a 

> 
O 

l-H 
P 



W 

o 

o 

l> 

w 

(— t 

o> 
«2 
<1 

PL, 

p 

w 

p 
p 



is 

H 

w 

W 
« 
CL, 



v 3 o © 



-3 5 S 



s 3 o o 



W 
H 

w 
a, 



SB 
H 

i 



CO vco Xo 

v ? 7 ? 



CO Co co 
nS NO 



to 



3 



=3. 



20 



I 



CO sco v «o 



O c ? 



V ? V V to 



VERBS. 279 



•3- o o 



3 '3 .3 

if & ?r 

3 3 3 



3\ 3 
*3 ^3 -3 ^ 

"3*^3^3* 
C <o © 



w 

b £ I 



Eh 

<j ^1 § g s 
* A** 

O o o 



— 5F — w w 

£ £ 111 g <S 4hf^ g III 



J W ^ PL, 



s 3- © o 



^3 ^3 



^3 



2*1 



'3; o S »5f *fc-<3 > g 

if *r «r ^ ~ - H w 

v 2 © o g- js- t? w 

J — ! !_ 1 ' 1 u» « o e ^ 

° £ w b b vg 

1 1 II I >l # J ^ ^ 





•3" '3 '3" 
§ - „ 3 

If! |>§* 



280 



VERBS. 



REMARKS ON THE PARADIGM OF PURE CONTRACTED 
VERBS IN a. 

Remark 1. Verbs in iio with a stem of one syllable ; as, 
ttA&j, / sail ; 7tveco, I blow ; &eco, I run, &c, undergo only the 
contraction in el (arising out of iti or ee), but in all the other 
forms remain uncontracted ; as, 

Act. Pres. Indie. tzTieco, nAstc, 7taeI, ttaeo/iev, ttaeite, 7taeovcti(v). 

Subj. ttaeco, 7rAe??f, 7TAEV, 7taeco/iev, ttastite, t:aelogl(v). 

lmper. 7tasi. Infin. tzaelv. Part. tzaecov. 
Imper. Indie. ettaeov, ettaei$, ettael, ettaeo^ev, ettaeZte,Itzaeov. 

Opt. irMoifiLf tzaeols, &c. 
M. & P. Pres. Ind. 7TAE0fj,ai, ttaeZ, ir?MTai, ttaeojlieOov, 7taeZ(j6ov, &c. 

Inf. irAEladai. Part. TCAEOfisvot;. Imperf. ETTAEOfiTjv. 

Remark 2. The verb dsto, I bind, commonly suffers contrac- 
tion in all its forms, especially in composition ; as, to dovv, rov 
dovvTog, diadovfiai, nartdovv. — But del, " it is necessary, 11 and 
Seofiac, I want, follow the analogy of verbs in ico with a stem of 
one syllable ; as, to Seov, Sio/uai, SsZadat. From this same deo- 
fiat, however, we find also open forms in the place of those con- 
tracted in el ; as, SesTac, desadat, eSseto (Xen.), and so, like- 
wise, similar ones from other verbs in eco belonging here ; as, 
for example, etzaeev (Xen., Hell., vi., 2, 27), tzaeel (Th., iv., 28). 

Remark 3. Several verbs deviate in contraction from the 
general rules that have been laid down. Thus, 

(A.) The vowels ge and aet are contracted into n and y (in- 
stead of a and a), in &to, fw, I live ; £5jf, £t}tov, £t}te. Infin. 
tfjv. Imperat. %rj. Imperfect e^cov, e&c, e&, e£t}tov, e^tvv, e&te : 
TZEivdco, co, I hunger. Infin. tzelvtjv, &c. — iitpdto, co, I thirst, (htjjyc, 
&c. Infin. ditfjijv : — nvdto, co, I scratch. Infin. nvrjv : — c/ndco, co, I 
smear. Infin. Gjifjv : — ipdco, co, I rub, ipfjv : — ^pao/zat, cbfiai, I use, 
XPV< XPV TaL > XpyvQai. So, dnoxp^dt, I have enough, drzoxpTjadat : 
anoxpv (shortened from dnoxpy), it is sufficient. Infin. dnoxpfjv. 
Imperf drzExpn : — XP&u, to, I give an oracle, xpy-> XPV V - 

(B.) The vowels oo and oe are contracted into co (instead of 
ov), and on into cp (instead of oZ), in piyoco, co, I congeal. Infin. 
faiycov (in Aristophanes, but fiiydvv in Xenophon, Cyrop., v., 1, 
11). Part. gen. piytivTog (in Aristoph., but friyovvrcov in Xen., 
Hell, iv., 5, 4), and friyeboa (Simon, de Mulier., 26). Subj. faiyti 
(Plat., Gorg., 517, d.). Optative piycon (Hippocrates). — To this 
verb friyoco, the Ionic idpoco, I perspire (its exact opposite in sig- 
nification), corresponds ; as, tdpcocn, idpconv, idpcoaa, idptovTEQ. 



VERBS. 



281 



Remark 4. With regard to the use of the Attic form of the 
optative in rjv (page 259, Remark 7), the following is to be ob- 
served. The plural of this form is the least usual, especially 
in the verbs ending in eu and 6u, but in those in do more fre- 
quent. In the singular, on the contrary, the form in oLt]v is by 
far more customary, in verbs in iu and 6to, than the regular one, 
and in those in 6u is almost exclusively used. 

Remark 5. The verb Xovg), I wash, although properly not a 
contracted one, suffers contraction in the imperfect active, and 
in the present and imperfect middle and passive, in all the forms 
in the ending of which there is e or o ; as, elov instead of elovs : 
k^ovjuev instead of eTtovopev : mid. and pass. XovfiaL (Xoet), Xov- 
rat : 3 plur. Xovvrai : imper. Tiov : infin. Tiovadai : imper f. £%ov- 
fiijv, elov, kXovro, &c., according to a stem Aoew. The open 
forms, however, are also found ; as, %ovo^aL, eXovovro (Xen.) 

Remark 6. As regards the alteration and removal of the ac- 
cent in contracted verbs ? the following may be remarked : 

When neither of the two syllables about to be contracted is 
accented, the contracted syllable is also unaccented ; and the 
syllable which had the accent before contraction, retains it after- 
ward ; as, (f>i?i£e — (pfkec (but <j>i/i££i = <p£/U£), and yivzl — yivzi 
(but yevitjv = yevtiv). 

But, when one of the two syllables about to be contracted is 
accented, the contracted syllable is also accented, and, if it be 
the antepenult or penult, it has the accentuation which the gen- 
eral rules require ; as, ri/idopai — Tt[iC)p.aL : §L?„z6(ievog — dclov- 
fievoc. But if it be the last syllable, it has the circumflex when 
the first one of the syllables about to be contracted has the 
acute ; as, ri\idu = ripLu. 



FORMATION OF THE TENSES OF PURE UNCONTRACTED 
AND CONTRACTED VERBS IN Q. 

General Rules. 

1. In pure verbs, whether uncontracted or contracted, the 
tense-endings are affixed to the verbal stem ; and this stem, 
in most verbs in w, is found by cutting off the ending of the 
first person of the present indicative active ; as, ftovXev-G), 
stem fiovXev : Xv-g), stem Xv. 

2. A regular change, however, which pure verbs under- 

A a 2 



282 



VERBS. 



go, is the following : namely, the short characteristic vowel 
of the present and imperfect, in both uncontracted and con- 
tracted verbs, is lengthened in the remaining tenses. Thus, 
in uncontracted verbs, the vowels I and v are lengthened ; 
in contracted verbs, however, the vowels a, e, and o. 

I into I ; as, fJLrjviG), \w)vl-ou>, e^rjviGa, &c. 

V " V ; " KG)?iV-G), KG)AV-GG), fC£-KG)XvfJ,CU, &C. 

8 " 77; " (piXe-G) (ftiXrj-OG), TTe-cbiXrj/ca, &c. 

o " 6) ; " fjnodo-dy (fMod<jj), nioddj-oo), fie-fiLodcofca, &c. 
a " ?/ ; " TLfia-G) (t£/zg5), Ttfirj-oo, rerifjtTjKa, &c. 

Remark 1. The a is lengthened into a when an e or £, or else 
a p, precedes ; as, ka-o, fut. M-<76> : eGTta-o), fut. earia-aa) : (pu- 
pa- l,, fut. (jtupa-Gcj : but kyyvd-G), fat. kyyvy-Gto : f3od-u f fut. /?07?- 
GOjbLdL, kSonGa. 

Remark 2. To verbs in -ea«, -iaw, and -paw, the two follow- 
ing attach themselves : namely, dAoa-a>, fut. (old Attic) akoa- 
go), but commonly dTiorj-Gu : afcpodofiai, fut. aKpoa-oofiai, aor, 
rjupGdodfiriv. 

Remark 3. The verbs #paw, I give an oracle : xp® f* a h I u se, 
and Tirp&o, I bore, change a into n, although a p precedes ; as, 

XpficrofiaL, rprjacj. 

3. Several verbs, however, retain the short characteristic 
vowel, contrary to the general rule, either throughout the 
whole of their formation, or in some particular tenses ; and 
most of these verbs take a in the perfect middle or pass- 
ive, and first aorist passive. Thus, 

Xptu, I sting ; fut. #pf<TG) : aor. e^pfoa (passive with cr). — But 

Xpto), I besmear ; fut. xP^ ao> - 
itvvu, I fulfill ; fut. avvGco : aor. fjvvaa (passive with a), 
apvo), I draw liquid ; fut. apvao : aor. fjpvGa (passive with g). 
fivo, I close ; fut. fxvGo : aor. efivGa : perf. fie/ivna. 

TTTVG), I Spit ; fut. TTTVGG) I 2LOY. £TCTVGa (passive With G). 

idpvo, I set; fut. IdpvGu : aor. 'ISpvGa : perf. mid. or pass, cdpv- 
fj,aL : aor. pass, idpvdnv. 

4. A few dissyllables in -vo lengthen the short charac- 
teristic vowel in the future and aorist active and middle ; 
partly, also, in the perfect and pluperfect active ; but take 



VERBS. 



283 



the short vowel again in the perfect and pluperfect middle 
or passive, and in the aorist and future passive ; as, 

dvu, fut. dvcG) : aor. a. edvaa : perf. SedvKa, dedvpai : aor. p. kdvOifv. 
i^vw, " : " edvaa: " redvaa, redvfiat : " hvdrjv. 

?iv(j, u Ivgg) : " e'Avaa : " AelvKa, AeAv/uat : " eAvdrjv. 

5. In both uncontracted and contracted pure verbs, if the 
vowel is long in the future active, and short in the perfect 
middle or passive, the future perfect again has the long 
vowel ; as, Xvco, XeXvoofiai. 



Special Rules. 

IMPERFECT ACTIVE. 

The Imperfect Active is formed by suffixing ov to the 
verbal stem, as found in the present, and prefixing the aug- 
ment ; as, 

(3ovXev-g), Stem [3ovXev, Imperf. e-6ovXev-ov. 
'luETEv-My " 'Xfcerev, " 'lketev-ov. 

ripd-G), " rifia, " E-Tifia-ov. 

(f>iXe-G), " (f)iXe, " e-(j)iXe-ov. 

PERFECT ACTIVE. 1 

The Perfect Active is formed by suffixing -kcl to the 
verbal stem after the characteristic letter has undergone its 
regular change, if any, and prefixing the reduplication, or 
else the simple augment, according as the verb may be 
susceptible of either ; as, 

povXev-G), Stem povXev, Perf. (3e-6ovXev-Ka. 

'tfcerev-G), <{ 'lketev, " ^Iketev-iki. 

%7]X6-G), " tyXo, " e£r}XG)-fca. 

TlfJLa-G), " TlfJLd, " TE-Ti\l7)-K(L. 

(f)iXe-G), " (piXs, " TTe-QcXrj-fca. 

PLUPERFECT ACTIVE. 

The Pluperfect Active is formed by suffixing -kelv to 

i. It will be borne in mind that pure verbs have no second perfect 
and pluperfect active. 



284 



VERBS. 



the verbal stem after the characteristic letter has undergone 
its regular change, if any, and prefixing the reduplication 
with the augment before it, or, if the verb be not suscepti- 
ble of the reduplication, the augment alone ; as, 

/3ovXev-g), Stem fiovXev, Pluperf. e-6e.6ovXev-keiv. 

'lketev-g), " 'lketev, " 'Iketev-keiv. 

%rjX6-G), " ^rjXo, " E^rjXcj-KEtv. 

TLfld-G), " Tlfia, " E-TE-TlfjLrj-KELV. 

(pt^E-CO, " (j)l?,E, " E-TTE'(f)lX7]-KElV. 

AORIST ACTIVE. 1 

The Aorist Active is formed by suffixing -era to the 
verbal stem after the characteristic letter has undergone its 
regular change, if any, and prefixing the augment ; as, 
/3ovXev-g), Stem (3ovXev, Aorist E-6ovXEv-oa. 



LKETEV-G), 

TLfJ,d-G), 
<f)l2,E-G), 



ItCETEV, 
(f)tXE, 



IKETEV-Oa. 

E^TjXo)-aa. 

E'TLfirj-aa. 

E'(f)cXrj-aa 



future active. 

The Future Active is formed by suffixing -gg) to the 
verbal stem after the characteristic letter has undergone its 
regular change, if any ; as, 



PovXev-g), Stem /3ovXev, 

'IfCETEV-G), " 'lltETEV, 

Tifjid-G), u riiia, 



Future /3ovXev-gg). 

" 'IfCETEV-OG). 
" %7jX(x)-OG). 
" TlflTj-OG). 

" (piXrj-GO). 

Remark. The addition of the letter -<?- to the root of the verb 
is the commonest method of denoting the future in Greek. 
This letter, according to the best philologists, represents the 
second pronomjnal element, just as the augment is the pro- 
nominal root, e-, and both of these pronominal roots, namely, -fr- 
aud k-i are supposed, on good grounds, to indicate distance or 
remoteness. Now, in looking back on a past action, we al- 

1. It will be remembered that pure verbs have no second aorist. 



VERBS. 



285 



ways, in some measure, fix its position, or regard it as fixed, 
with a subordinate idea of distance — "that which is gone by 
whereas, in looking forward to the future, our anticipations are 
ajways indefinite and confused, though perhaps connected in 
all cases with a sentiment of proximity or approach — the idea 
of " that which is coming." Hence, the pronominal root, in the 
former case, is used as a prefix, and the accent is drawn back 
to it, to express that the time referred to is gone by, just as, 
conversely, future time is expressed by a suffix. A. striking 
analogy in support of this is found in the Greek prepositions of 
two syllables, which throw their accent backward and forward, 
according as the noun to which they refer precedes or follows ; 
and we observe something very similar in the shifting of the 
accent in common conversation. (New Cratylus, p. 457.) 

ATTIC FUTURE. 

If, in the future active and middle, in -(76), -oojicu, of a 
stem of two or more syllables, a short vowel, a, I, v, goes 
before the cr, another form is used instead of the regular 
one, which new form throws out the a and takes a circum- 
flex ending : namely, in the active, c5 in place of crw, and, 
in the middle, ov\iai in place of oofxat. Thus, 

eAaw, Fut. eXa-O G) : Fut. Att. eXco, ag. a, arov, gj/iev, 
are, u>ai(v). 

teXeg), Fut. teXe-o-g) : Fut. Att. teXm, elg, el, eltov, ov\iev, 
elte, ovoi(v). 

KOfll^G), FlJT. tCOfli-G-G) I FuT ATT. KO{lLG), 181$, LEL, LELTOV, 

lov\iev, leIte, iovat{y). 

, Fut. fcofit-O'OjjLai : Fut. Att. tcofiiovfiai, lei, leltcll, 

lov\jleOov, <fcc. 

Remark 1. This form of the future is found only in the in- 
dicative, infinitive, and participle, never in the optative ; thus, 
T£/ld>, reXeiVy Te?.£)Vi but teaegoljui. 

Remark 2. The verbs which take this form are the following : 
1. eMu (usually klavvid), I drive : rekiw, I fulfill ; and Ka?Jco, I 
call. — 2. All verbs in — 3. A few verbs in of these very 
generally fiiSdfa, I walk. — 4. All verbs in -uvvdfu, and also a/j.- 
(pLEvvvfit, I clothe (u/LKpLEGio, Att. fut. u/LKpLGj, tele, &c). — Exceptions 
to this future-form are but rare in the Attic dialect ; as, kldau 



286 



VERBS. 



(Xen , Cyrop., i., 4, 20) : reTieaovatv {Id. ib., viii., 6, 3) : naki- 
ceig {Id. ib., ii., 3, 22) : vo[ilgovgl {Id. ib. } iii., 1, 27) : ^(jtiaeffOe 
{Isceus, de Clean. Hared., <J> 51). 



Middle Tenses. 

PRESENT MIDDLE. 

The Present Middle is formed by suffixing -o\iai to the 
verbal stem ; as, 

PovXev.G), Stem flovXev, Pres. Mid. fiovXev-oiicu. 

f lfC£rev-G), " 'ifcerev, 44 44 'ifterEv-ofiai, 

£r]X6-G), " ^rjXo, " " %7)X6>o{iai. 

rifid-G), " rifia, 44 " Ti\id-o\iat. 

faXe-G), " </>£/Le, " " (piXe-ofiai. 

IMPERFECT MIDDLE. 

The Imperfect Middle is formed by suffixing -dfirjv to 
the verbal root, and prefixing the augment ; as, 

(3ovXev-co, Stem flovXsv. Imperf. Mid. £-6ovXev.6firjv. 

'Ikstsv-g), 44 'itcErev, 46 " r iK8TeV-6fjLrjV. 

^rjXo-G), 44 ^V/^Oj " " e-^7]Xo-6jjL7jv. 

Tifid-G), " r^a, " " e-Ti{jLa,'6fi7jV. 

faXe-a), 44 <^/le, 44 44 e.faXe-dfirjv. 

PERFECT MIDDLE. 

The Perfect Middle (formerly called the perfect pass- 
ive) is formed by suffixing -fiat to the verbal stem after the 
characteristic letter has undergone its regular change, if any, 
and prefixing the reduplication, or else the simple augment, 
according as the verb may be susceptible of either ; as, 

j3ovXevo), Stem (3ovXev, Perf. Mid. $E-bovX£v-\iai. 

'luerev-G), " 'Ifcerev^ 44 44 'iKsrev-fjiaL. 

%rjX6-G>, 44 fyXo, 44 44 e-ZrjXu-fiai. 

Tlfld-G), 44 Tl[Ml, 44 44 TZ-Tl\L7]-\Lai. 

(ptXe-G), 44 <piXe, 44 44 ixE-(\)iXr\-\iai. 

Pure verbs which do not lengthen the short characteristic 
vowel of the stem in the formation of the tenses, insert o 



VERBS. 



287 



immediately before the tense-endings in the perfect and 
pluperfect middle or passive, and the aorist and future pas- 
sive ; as, X9 L(i) 1 ^ ut# XP^ O0) ■ P er f- m id. or pass. K&xpiofiai. 

In addition to these verbs, several which have a long 
characteristic vowel in their stem, or which lengthen the 
short characteristic vowel of the stem in the tense-forma- 
tion, follow this same analogy ; as, afcovu, I hear : perf. 
m, or p. r\Kov-G'\iaL : pluperf. m. or p. 7\K0V'0-\ir\v : aor. p. 
fjfcov-o-dTjv : fut. p. anov o-drjaoiMCU. So, also, evavoj, I 
kindle : neXevo), I order : kvXIg), I roll : Xevo), I stone : 
gvG), I shave : upcd), I saw : oelo), I shake, and several 
others, among which are many contracted verbs. 

The following paradigm will explain this point more 

fully: 







ACTIVE. 








keaevco, I order. 




Pres. 


keaev-o, Perf. ke-keaev-kcl, Fut. keaev-gio, 


IMPERF. E-KEAEV-OV, PlUP. £ 


-KE-KEAEV-KELV, AOR. E-K£?i£V-Ga. 






MIDDLE. 






Pres. KEAsv-ofiat, 


IMPERF. E-KEAEV-OflTJV. 






Indicative. 


Imperative. 


Infinitive. 




S. 1 
2 


KE-tCEAEV-G-flCll, 
KE-KEAEV-O-ai, 


KE-Kt'AEV-GO, 


K£-K£?i£V-Gdai. 




3 


ke-keAev-g-tcic, 


KE-K£?^£V-g6lJ, 


Participle. 


Perf. 


D. 1 

2 


KE-KEAEV-G-fJlEdoV, 

ke-keAev-g-Oov, 


ke-keAev-g6oVj 


KE-KEAEV-G-flE- 

vog. 




3 


KE-KEAEV-G-0OV, 


ke-keXev-oOcjv, 


Subjunctive. 




P. 1 


KE-KEAEV-G-flEda, 




ke-keAev-g-jlle- 




2 


ke-keAev-g-Oe, 


KE-KEAEV-G0E, 


vog g>. 
Optative. 




3 


ke-keAev-g-^evoi 


K£-KE?iEV-Gd(i)GaV, OT 


K£-K£?i£V-G-flE- 






ELGL, 1 


-g6g)v, 


vog eirjv. 




S. 1 


£-K£-K£AEV-G-fl7}V, D. 


£-K£-KE?\>EV-G-[Ie6oV, P. 


e-ke-keaev-g- 
/usda, 


Plup. 


2 


E-KE-KEAEV-GO, 


£-K£-K£?i£V-G-6oV, 


e-ke-ke7iEV-g6e 




3 


E-KE-KEAEV-G-TO, 


k-tCE-K. EAEV- G-6r]Vy 


K£-K£AEV-G-flE- 
VOL T)G(IV 1 


Fut. ke/iev- 


go/lmii, Fut. Perf. KE-KEAEv-G-otiat, Aor. e 


-K£?i£V-G~d/LirjV. 






PASSIVE. 




Aorist e-keAev-g-Otjv, 


Future KEA£v-G-6f/Gouai. 



1. Vid. page 261, § 6. 



288 



VERBS. 



Remark L Some verbs fluctuate between the formation with 
c and the regular formation ; as, dpavo), I shatter; perf. re'0- 
pavG/iat and reOpav/xaL ; aor. kdpavadrjv : /cAe/w, I shut ; perf. 
KitikziiiaL ( Attic KEKArifiaL ) and KiK^eiafiac ; aor. h.KkziaQr)v : 
KpovtOy 1 knock ; perf. KeKpovpat and KeKpovajiat ; aor. hupovadriv. 

Remark 2. Some, contrary to the rule, do not take the c, 
though they retain the short vowel. See, for example, those 
given on page 283, § 4, dvu, #t>G>, Xvu. 

PLUPERFECT MIDDLE. 

The Pluperfect Middle is formed by suffixing -p/v to 
the verbal stem after the characteristic letter has undergone 
its regular change, if any, and prefixing the reduplication 
with the augment before it, or, if the verb be not suscepti- 
ble of the reduplication, the augment merely ; as, 

(3ovXev-G), Stem /3ovXev, Pluperf. Mid. e-6e-6ov?«ev~fi7]v. 
'itcereV'G), 46 'Iketev, " " *Iketev-\ii)v. 

TLfJbd-G), u TlfJLa, " " E-TE-Ti\ir\-\L7\V . 

<plXE-G), " (j)lXE, " " E'7TE-(/)tXri-fl7]V. 

Remark. As regards the insertion of g before the tense-end- 
ing, consult page 287. 

AORIST MIDDLE. 

The Aorist Middle is formed by suffixing •adfjLTjv to the 
verbal stem after the characteristic letter has undergone its 
regular change, if any, and prefixing the augment ; as, 

(3ovXev-g), Stem (3ovXev, Aorist Mid. E-bovXEv-oa\i7)v. 

'IttETEV-G), " 'llCETEV, " " ' ZfCETEV-OdflTjV . 

tyXo-G), " tyXo, " " E-tyXu-odfirjv. 

Ttfid-G), " rifia, " " E-Ti\Lr\-Gd\ir\v. 

<I>lXe-g), " <$>iXe y " " E-cpiXrj-odfiTjv. 

FUTURE MIDDLE. 

The Future Middle is formed by suffixing -oofxcu to the 
verbal stem after the characteristic letter has undergone its 
regular change, if any ; as, 



VERBS. 289 



povXev-G), 


Stem fiovXev, 


Future Mid. fiovXev-oofAat. 


*ltC£TSV-G)) 




u " 'itceTev-oofjLat, 


ZtjXo-g), 


ff? ftfAo, 


" " ^TfXoj-aofjLac. 


Ttfld-G), 




" " TifiTj-aojiat. 


<j)lX£-GJ, 


" $t.Xe, 


" " <j)iXr]-oo[j,cu. 



Remark. For the Attic future in -ovfiat, consult page 285. 



FUTURE PERFECT. 

The Future Perfect is formed by suffixing -ao^ai to 
the verbal stem after the characteristic letter has undergone 
its regular change, if any, and by prefixing the reduplication, 
or else the simple augment, if the verb be not susceptible 
of reduplication ; as, 



/3ovXev-g), 


Stem fiovXev, 


Future Perf. fie-dovXev'OOjjLai. 


x Iketev G), 


4< 'Itcerev, 


a 


" 'iKerev-aofiai. 


^TfXd.G), 


" ^Xo, 


a 


" E^rjX(jj-GO[JiaL. 


Ttud-G), 


" TLfia, 


u 


" TE-TLfirj-aofjiaL. 


faXe-G), 


H <f)iXe, 


n 


" 7TE'(f)LXrj-oofjiai. 



Remark 1. Verbs pure that have the temporal augment very 
rarely have the future perfect. When they do have this tense, 
the only difference, in fact, between it and the ordinary future 
middle consists, in most cases, in the change of quantity in the 
initial vowel, as in 'iKerev-ao/xat, fut. mid., and 'inerev-Goiiai, 
fut. perf. 

Remark 2. In both uncontracted and contracted pure verbs, 
as has already been stated, if the vowel is long in the future 
active, and short in the perfect middle or passive, the future 
perfect again has the long vowel ; as, Avw, Xelvaofiau 



Passive Tenses. 
The Present and Imperfect Passive are formed in pre- 
cisely the same way as the Present and Imperfect Middle, 

AORIST PASSIVE. 

The Aorist Passive is formed by suffixing .drjv to the 
verbal stem after the characteristic letter has undergone its 
regular change, if any, and prefixing the augment ; as ? 

Bb 



290 



VERBS. 



fiovXev-o), Stem (3ovXev, Aorist Pass. £-6ovXev-07jv. 

'l/CETEV-G), " 'LfCETEV, " " 'ZfCeTEV-QrjV. 

^rjX6-G), " £?7^0, " <£ e-fyXu-drjv. 

Tifj,d-c*), u rifia, " " h-Ti\ir\-Qi\v. 

(piXe-G), " <^Ae, " " e-faXrj-Orjv. 

As in the case of the perfect and pluperfect middle or 
passive, so in that of the aorist passive, pure verbs which 
do not lengthen the short characteristic vowel of the stem 
in the formation of the tenses, insert a immediately before 
the tense-ending ; as, fat. xptood ; aor. pass. k%pio- 

Qt\v. — The same analogy is followed by several other verbs 
which have a long characteristic vowel in their stem, or 
which lengthen the short characteristic vowel of the stem 
in the tense-formation ; as, &kovg), I hear ; aor. rjicov-o-Orjv, 
&c. Consult page 282. 

FUTURE PASSIVE. 

The Future Passive is formed by suffixing ^fjaofiat to 
the verbal stem, after the characteristic letter has under- 
gone its regular change, if any ; as, 

/3ovXev-G), Stem (iovXev, Future Pass. PovXev-Orjaofiai. 
'Ltterev-G), 61 'itcerev, " " 'iKETev-drjOoiiai. 
£rjX6-G), " fyXo, " " fyXcj-drjOOfxai. 

T/,/m-G), " rifia, " " Ti\ir\-Qr\Go\iai. 

<piXe-G), " (ptXe, " " faXrj-drjoofjai. 

The same remark with regard to the insertion of a be- 
fore the tense- ending holds good in the case of the future 
passive, as in that of the aorist passive, and perfect and 
pluperfect middle or passive ; as, d/covo), i\KOv-o-6r\v : fut. 
aKOV-G-drjaofiaL, &c. 



IMPURE VERBS. 
1. Impure verbs, that is, verbs whose characteristic is a 
consonant, or which, in other words, end in o), preceded by 
a consonant, undergo many changes in their stem ; and 



VERBS. 



291 



partly in the course of their tense-formation. Thus, the 
stem of the verb experiences, 

(A.) Either a strengthening by means of a conso- 
nant ; as, tvtt-t-co, stem tvtt : «pd£-(o, stem Kpay. 

(B.) Or a lengthening of the vowel of the stem ; as, 
<(>evy-G), stem <f>vy : XtjO-g), stem XaO : ttjic-g), stem rare 

(C.) Or a change of the vowel of the stem in the 
tenses, which the Germans call umlautung, and which 
may be rendered in English by the term cognation, that 
is, the substitution of cognate vowels for one another ; 
as, nXeTtr-G), e-tcXan-Tjv, fce-nXotp-a, just as in English 
we say, steal, stole, stolen ; ring, rang, rung. 

2. In verbs which thus alter the stem in their tense- 
formation, we distinguish two different stems, namely, the 
original, simple one, and the full, strengthened one ; and 
we call the former the Pure, the latter the Impure Stem. 

3. The present and imperfect of these verbs contain the 
impure stem, the second tenses (when such are formed), and 
especially the second aorist, the pure one ; the remaining 
tenses either the pure or the impure ; as, 

Prest. tvtt-t-u, I strike — 2d Aor. Pass. e-Tvir-yv — Fut. Act. rvfu 

(TV77-GL)). 

Prest. Tielk-u, I leave — 2d Aor. Act. e-Xtn-ov — Fut. Act. Xefya 
(le'nr~GG)). 

Prest. c$a£-u, I slay — 2d Aor. Pass. k-a$ay-7iv — Fut. Act. c<j>d^(j 
(a<pdy-<7u). 

Prest. (patv-u, I show — 2d Aor. Pass, h-fyav-rjv — Fut. Mid. <pav- 
ovfiai. 

Prest. Qdelp-u, I destroy — 2d Aor. Pass. h-<j>dap-rjv — Fut. Act. 
6dep-cj. 

4. For every form of the verb which could not have been 
derived from that of the present, its stem not correspond- 
ing to that of the existing present, we lay down another 
form of the present (mostly one that is assumed merely for 
the sake of the formation), and call it a theme (dsfia), which 
we represent in capital letters, to distinguish it from the 
present-form in actual use > thus, for example, (pevyo) is the 



292 



VERBS. 



form of the present in actual use, $Yr£2 the present-form, 
merely assumed for the formation of the second aorist ; or, 
in other words, it is the theme. 



I. Strengthening of the Stem. 

1 . The strengthening of the stem by consonants consists 
in strengthening the simple characteristic consonant of the 
stem by means of another consonant ; as, 

twtg), I strike ; 2d Aor. Pass. e-tv7t-7]V. 
t6ttg), I arrange ; " u \ Pass. e-Tay-rjv. 
tcpd£(M), I cry out ; " " Act. e-Kpay-ov. 

2. The stem thus strengthened maintains itself, however, 
only in the present and imperfect ; in all the other tenses 
the strengthening is lost, and the simple stem again ap- 
pears ; as, 

Pres. tvtttg) : Imperf. ervrrrov : 2d Aor. Pass. e-Tvn-Tjv : 
Fut. tvi/xo (tvtt-ocj). 

Remark. The characteristic of the pure stem, namely, tt in 
TYH-S2, is called the pure characteristic ; that of the impure 
stem, namely, tit in rv7rr-w, is called the impure characteristic. 

3. The strengthening of the stem by the lengthening of 
the stem-vowel consists in this, namely, that the short 
stem-vowel which appears in the second aorist, and, in the 
case of liquid verbs, in the future, is lengthened in the 
present and imperfect ; as, 

a becomes 77 in mute verbs ; as, (e-Xad-ov), XtjBu. 

a " ai " liquid verbs ; " (0av-w), oalvu. 

e " el " liquid verbs ; " (<j>dep-u>), <pdetpu. 

X " ei " mute verbs ; " (l-Tan-ov), Tisino). 

I " I " mute and liquid verbs ; " (e-Tpt6-7jv), rpt6u. 

v " v " mute and liquid verbs ; " (e-typvy-qv), (j>pvyu>. 

v " ev " mute and liquid verbs ; " (l-^vy-ov), <psvyu. 
Remark. On this strengthening of the stem turns the dis- 
tinction between the imperfect and second aorist of the indica- 
tive and optative, and between the present and second aorist 
in the subjunctive and imperative ; as, knpa^ov and enpuyov : 



VERBS. 



293 



Kpa&ifii and Kpuyoifj.1 : Kpd^o and tcpayo) : tcpafr and Kpuye. So, 
again, eTielttov and eTClkov : Tielnoi/u and TunocfiL : Xeinu and 
?U7ro) : Tielne and A£7re. 



2. Change of the Stem-vowel. 

1. The change of the stem-vowel (Umlautung, p. 291) 
takes place only in the inflection of the second tenses, with 
the exception of a few forms of the first perfect. 

2. Most mute as well as liquid verbs, with a stem of one 
syllable, and with e as the stem-vowel, have this vowel 
changed in the second aorist ; as, 

Tpin-G), 2d Aor. Act. e-Tpdn-ov, dep-o, 2d Aor. Pass. k-Sap-rjv, 

K?lE7T-T-C), " " PASS. E-K?ia7T-7]V, OT£A/l-&>, " M " E-GTal-JJV, 
Tp€(p-0), " " " E-Tputy-VV, GTTEip-G), " " " E-CKap-TJV , 

OTpe(f)-G), " u " t-(jTf)d(j)-7]v, (f)6eip-o), u 11 " E-cpOup-qv, 
fipEX-v, " " '* £-6p&X~V v i TEfiv-u, " " Act. E-rdfi-ov. 
Remark. The second aorist frafiov is very rare, and quite 
doubtful. The common form is ete[iov. 

3. But not those whose stem consists of more than one 
syllable ; as, ayyeXXu, I announce ; 2d aor. act. r\yytXov : 
2d aor. pass, rjyyekrjv : dcpeiho), I owe ; 2d aor. act. c50eAov, 
&c. 

Remark 1. The change of the stem-vowel is omitted in the 
second aorist passive of some verbs, as the ending of the aorist 
passive does not admit of an exchange with the imperfect ; 
thus, pterttj, I see ; imperfect e-SIetc-ov: 2d aor. pass, e-6Xe.7t-7jv. 
So, Aeycj, in composition ; as, 2d aor. pass. KaTsXsy^v, GWEAEyrjv : 
and, again, aetto, 2d aor. pass. e-Ietz^v : ^Aeyw, k-(j>tey~7]v, &c. 

Remark 2. The verb 7r/l^rrcj, " / strike" has. as a simple 
verb, the rj in the 2d aor. pass. ; as, k-n'kriy-riv, but in the com- 
pounds the 7/ changes to a ; as, E^£-7r7iay-yv f /caTe-nA&y-Tjv. 

4. Liquid verbs with a stem of one syllable, and with e 
as the stem-vowel, have it changed into a, not only in the 
second aorist, but also in the first perfect and first pluper- 
fect active, and in the perfect middle or passive and first 
aorist passive ; as, 

gteaacj, I send. Fut. gtea-u. Perf. A. E-oTak-na. Perf.Mid. 

e-GTal-fiaL. 2d Aor. Pass. E-GraA-riv. 
(pdEipo, I destroy. Fut. (pdEp-fi. Perf. A. E-Qdap-ica. Perf. 

Mid. E-<p6ap-fiai. 

Bb2 



294 



VERBS. 



But not those whose stem is of more than one syllable ; 
as, ayyeXXu : perf. act. ^'yyg/Ua, &c. Compare § 3. 

5. Mute and liquid verbs which have e in the last syl- 
lable of the stem, and liquid verbs which have el in that 
syllable, change them into o in the second perfect; while 
mute verbs which have et in that syllable change it into 
oi ; as, 

depfcofiaL, 2d Perf. Act. dedoptca, depcj, 2d Perf. Act. didopa, 
Tf)i<j>G), " " rirpo^a, eyelpa), " " eyprjyopa, 

Aeiiro), " " Ae/lo£7ra, OTrelpo}, " " Eoiropa, 

neldo), " " Trenoida, \ tydeipcd, " " £<j>dopa. 

Remark. Under this head we are to rank the following 
anomalous second perfects, namely, eluda (in place of slda), 
from ed(o : oida, from EIAG : eouca, from EIKQ ; pluperf. eutceiv : 
eoTnza, from eIku ; pluperf. kulneiv : Eopya> from EPT£2 ; plu- 
perf. koypyetv : eppcoya, from f>7jyvvfu. 

6. The following change their stem- vowel into o in the 
first perfect, contrary to the rule ; namely, 

AcAf7rr6>, 1 perf. KEnlofya, but perf. m. or p. KSfi2,efificu (also kek- 

TiajUficiL, poet.). 
/U/6), 1 perf. elloxa, but perf. mid. or p. elleyfiai. 
TrefjLTtG), " Trenofifya, but perf. mid. or p. niTCEfx^iai. 
rpEizu, " T£rpo(j)a (same in form as 2d perf. of rpitpu) and 

TETpa^a. 

Remark. The form rsrpa^a only seldom occurs, and mostly 
with TETpo(j)a as another reading. The a in the perf. act. is 
otherwise without example, and probably adopted here merely 
for distinction' sake, from the TErpotpa of Tpi(j>o). 

7. The following dissyllabic mute verbs, with e as the 
stem-vowel, change it into a in the perfect middle or pass- 
ive, like liquid verbs of the same kind ; but not in the first 
aorist passive, as is the case with liquid verbs : 

oTpEtyo), I turn; Perf. M. or P. Earpafi/iai, but 1 Aor. P. EOTpEtyOrjv . 
TpEiro), I turn ; " " TETpafifiat, £TpE(j)6nv. 
TpE(j>o)j I nourish; " " TEdpafifiai, tdpfydnv. 

(A.) Mtjte Verbs. 
I. Mute verbs, like the mute letters, are divided into 



VERBS. 



295 



three classes, according to the fundamental sound of their 
characteristic. 

IL In each of these classes we distinguish the verbs 
with the pure characteristic in the present and imperfect 
from those with an impure one. 

III. The three classes are as follows : namely, 

1. Verbs whose characteristic is a P-sound(7r, j3, <p, 
pure : rrr impure) ; as, 

Pure Characteristic : 7re^7r-G), I send : Tpt6-G), ) 
I rub : ypd(j)-G), I write. S 

Impure Characteristic : tvttt-g), I strike (pure J 
characteristic tt : pure stem TTII) : fiXdiTT-G), > 
I injure (13, BAAB) : pcnr-G), I throw (</>, f PI$). ) 

2. Verbs whose characteristic is' a K-sound (ft, y, %, 
pure ; aa, or Attic tt, impure) ; as, 

Pure Characteristic : TrXen-G), I plait : ay-u), I ) 
lead : tev %-(*), I form. ) 

Impure Characteristic : (ppiaa-o, Attic (ppiTT-u^ 
I shudder (pure characteristic k : pure stem 
$PIK) : TaocF-G), Attic TdrT-o), I arrange (y, j 
TAr) : prjov.G), Att. (3t]tt-g), I cough BHX). J 

3. Verbs whose characteristic is a T-sound (r, 6, #, 
pure ; impure) ; as, 

Pure Characteristic : dvvT-G), I complete : ad-G), ) 
I sing : 7recd-G), I persuade. S 

Impure Characteristic : 0pa£-6), I say (pure > 
characteristic 6 : pure stem 3>PAA). S 

Remark 1. Some verbs in -ecu (Attic -rrw) have not a K- 
sound, but a T-sound, for their pure characteristic ; as, dpuor- 
76), fut. dpfiovcj : kpiaaOy nacrco, 7r?id(jao) f tttlcctg). 

Remark 2. The verb vdoau fluctuates between both forma- 
tions ; as, fut. vat-o), &c. ; per/, mid. or pass, vevacfiai. 

Remark 3. Man)' verbs in which for the most part ex- 
press a cry or sound, have not a T-sound, but a K-sound (usu- 
ally y), for their pure characteristic ; as, aiafa, I groan ; fut. 
aidgcj : ^aXd^o^ I shout: not^o), I squeak ; fut. Kottju : upafa, I 



296 



VERBS. 



cry out: kol)£cj, I croak : oiftufa, I lament : oAoAvfw, I hotel ; 
Grevufas I groan : crrnpi^u, I make firm : cydfa (Att. a(jxlTTu)) f I 
slaughter, &c. 

Remark 4. The following in -fu fluctuate between both for- 
mations : paoru&i I carry ; fut. -aav, &C. ; aor. pass. e6aarax- 
6nv : vvGrd^o), I wink, I sleep ; fut. -aav and -ago : Trac^o), I play ; 
fut. TraitjovjLtai and nal!;ofj.ai, aor. enaiaa, perf. mid. or pass. 

7T '£77 a LGfia I. 

Remark 5. The following in -Jw have yy for their pure char- 
acteristic : Kkufyi, I cry out; fut. /cAayfo, 2d perf. Ke-KAayy-a : 
TTAa^o), I cause to wander ; fut. TtXay^o, &c. ; aor. pass. MAyQnv : 
aaATzt^cj, I trumpet; fut. aaAiriyijo, &c. 



FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN VERBS MUTE. 
. Imperfect Active. 
I. The Imperfect Active is formed by suffixing -oi> to 
the verbal stem as it is found in the present, and prefixing 
the augment ; as, 



Tptd-G), 


Stem 


rpl6, 


Imperf. Act. 


e-Tpld-ov. 




a 


#077 7", 


(c (< 


e>K07TT~0V. 


TtXeKG), 


a 




a 66 


e-ttXek-ov. 


rdrr-G), 


66 


TCLTT, 


66 66 


E-TCLTT-OV. 




6i 




66 66 


£-lp£vd OV. 




66 




66 66 


E-<t>pa£-ov, 



First Perfect Active. > 

1. The First Perfect Active is formed from the pure 
or simple stem of the verb by suffixing the aspirated end- 
ing -d, if the characteristic is a P- or a K-sound ; but the 
ending -fca if it be a T-sound, and in either case prefixing 
the reduplication, or the augment merely if the veib be not 
susceptible of reduplication. 

2. All the changes required by the laws of euphony must, 
at the same time, be carefully observed. Thus, 

Tpt6-o, Pure Stem rpl6, 1 Perf. Act. (T£-Tpl6-d) = rk-rpl^-a. 

KOTTT-G), " " KOTT, " " (kE'-K OTZ-d) = KE-KO<f>-a. 

TtXiK-u, " " nXeK, " " (jrt-nAen-d) = 7re-7rAf£-a, 



VERBS. 



297 



TaTT-cjy Pure Stem ray, 1 Perf. Act. iri-ray-a) — ri-raX'O.. 
rpevS-u, " " ipsvd, " u < (S-^'et>d-/ca) = e-ipev-Ka. 
$pd£-o), " " 0pdd, " " (ire-<ppad~Ka)=ir£-(f>pa-Ka. 

Remark 1. The T-sound is omitted before the k, as will be 
seen in e-ipev-Ka for s-ipevd-na : and ni-^pa-Ka for 7TE~<f)pad-Ka. 

Remark 2. The vowels a, t y v> in verbs with a T-sound as 
their characteristic, are short before the ending -/ca ; as, ^afw, 
fut. (j>pacG), 1st perf. Tzi-fypa-na : vofit^cj, fut. vo/lugo, 1st perf. ve- 
v6[iX-Ka : /c^v^w, fut. /c^vtrw, 1st perf. KE~K?,v-Ka. 

Remark 3. The alterations which the mutes undergo in con- 
sequence of the addition of the different tense-endings have 
already been explained under the general head of Euphonic 
Changes, page 31, seqq. 

First Pluperfect Active. 

1. The First Pluperfect Active is formed from the 
pure or simple stem of the verb by suffixing the aspirated 
ending in ~elv, if the characteristic is a P- or K-sound, but 
the ending -ksiv if it be a T-sound ; and in either case pre- 
fixing the reduplication with the augment going before it, 
or else the augment alone, if the verb be not susceptible of 
reduplication ; as, 

Tpt6-cj, Pure Stem rptS, 1 Plup. A. (k-Te-rpl6-eiv) = k-re-rpfy-eiv. 

TtTlEK-CJ, M 

rarr-w, " 
\pevd-cj, " 



KOTTy 

ray, 



" {k-KE-KOTT-zlv) = k-KE'K,6(p'ELV. 

" (e-re-Tay-elv) = E-TE-rax-eiv. 

" (t-lpEvd-KElv) — E-lplV-KELV. 
" (k-TTE-(f>pd6-KELv) — E-7TE-(j>pa-KElV. 

Remark. As in the case of the first perfect, so here also, in 
the pluperfect, the vowels a, *, v, in verbs with a T-sound as 
the characteristic, are short before the tense-ending -keiv 

Second Perfect Active. 

1. The Second Perfect Active (formerly called the 
perfect middle) is formed from the pure or simple stem of 
the verb by suffixing -a (unaspirated), and prefixing the re- 
duplication, or the augment merely if the verb be not sus- 
ceptible of reduplication. 

2. But, in forming this tense, the stem vowel undergoes 



298 



VERBS. 



oftentimes peculiar changes, which have already been al- 
luded to (page 294, § 5). 

3. Thus, mute verbs which have s in the last syllable of 
the stem change it into o, and those which have el change 
this into oi. 

4. Again, the second perfect does not always retain the 
short vowel of the stem, but lengthens it in many verbs ; 
namely, a into 77, and, after p or a vowel, into a. 

5. But in the middle of the stem remains unchanged 
in the second perfect. 

6. Finally, if the Attic reduplication accede to the sec- 
ond perfect, the penultimate syllable is usually shortened. 

7. We will now subjoin examples of each of these for- 
mations. 

1. Regular Formation. 
KOTTT-G), pure stem icon, 2d perf. act. fce-tcoir-a. 

KTjd-G), " " K7]6, " " K£-K7}d-a. 

TTjK-G), " " T7]K, " " TE'TTjK-G,* 

ttXtjS-g), " " ttXtjO, " " nE-TtXr\Q.a. 
2. Stem-vowel e changed to 0. 

rpi(f).(o, pure stem rpe(j>, 2d perf. act. TE-rp0(f>-a. 
7T8pd-G), " " Tcepd, " " ire-nopd-a* 

3. ei in the (strengthened) Stem changed to 01. 

Xelir-G), stem (/Utt) Xeltt, 2d perf. act. Xe-Xoltt-o,. 
neid-o), " (md) ttelO, " " TtE-iroiO-a. 
dEtd-G), " 6ec6, " " 3s-douc-a. 

4. Short Vowel of the Stem lengthened, &c. 
Xrjd-G), stem XdS, 2 aor. E-Xad-ov, 2 perf. act. Xe XrjO-a. 
Kpd£.(o, u Kpay, " E-updy-ov, u " KE-Kpay-a. 

5. The Vowel remaining unchanged. 
kottt-g), stem kott, 2 perf. act. KE-tcon-a. 

6. Reduplication. — Penult shortened. 

epftofiai, 2 perf. EXrjXvda. 



VERBS. 



299 



Remark 1. Sometimes the second perfect contains the long 
vowel of the present ; as, ne-tyevy-a, from (pevyo. (But 2 aor. 
act. e-6vy-ov.) So, again, rer^/ca, from rrjuu. (But 2 aor. pass. 

£TUK7jV), &C. 

Remark 2. The second perfect stands in the following rela- 
tions to the first perfect : 1. The two forms occur together in 
only few verbs of one and the same dialect, especially in those 
which, besides a transitive, admit of an intransitive significa- 
tion, for which the second perfect is then exclusively employed. 
2. Usually, however, a verb has only one perfect active, in 
which case the first perfect predominates with the Attic writers, 
and the second perfect with the Epic. Nevertheless, of some 
verbs, the second perfect is alone usual even with the Attics, 
and in a signification which belongs as a true perfect to that of 
the present. Such second perfects are, olda (from eldu): kTirj- 
Tivda (from spxofiat) : Kenpdya (from Kpafa), &c. 

Second Pluperfect Active. 

1. The Second Pluperfect Active (formerly called the 
pluperfect middle) is formed from the pure or simple stem 
of the verb by suffixing -a (un aspirated), and prefixing the 
reduplication with the augment before it, or the augment 
alone, if the verb be not susceptible of reduplication. 

2. The same changes take place in the case of the stem- 
vowel, and the same rules hold good here as in the case of 
the second perfect. Thus, 

kottt-g), Pure Stem kott, 2 Pluperf. Act. e-ne-ttoTr-siv. 
nhrjO-G), " 44 Trtyd, " 44 e.7T6'n?irjd-stv. 

Tp8(f)-G), 44 " Tp£(f), " 44 e-T8-Tp6(f)-8LV. 

Xeln-G), " " Xetrr, " 44 e-Xe-XoiTT-eiv . 

tcpd^-G), 44 44 tcpdy, 44 44 e-fce-Kpay-eiv. 

Xrjd-G), " 44 XdO, u " k-Xe-Xrid.eiv. 

First Aorist Active. 

1. The First Aorist Active is formed from the pure or 
simple stem of the verb by suffixing -era, and prefixing the 
augment. 



300 



VERBS. 



2. But, if the pure stem be strengthened by lengthening 
its vowel, then the first aorist active is formed from this. 

3. All the changes required by the laws of euphony must, 
at the same time, be carefully observed. Thus, 



TplS-O), 


Pure 


Stem rpi6, 


1 Aor. 


Act. (e-rptS-aa) = £-rpLip-a. 


K07TT-G), 


(i 


" K07T, 


tt 


44 (e-Kon-ca) — e-xoijj-a. 




a 


44 7t2.sk, 


«< 


44 (£-7T?ieK-<ja) = e-irTieZ-a. 


TO,TT-G)i 


<« 


44 ray, 


a 


44 (e-Tciy-oa) —e-Ta%-a. 


ipevd-u), 


tt 


11 ipevd, 


a 


44 (e-ipevd-oa) = t-tpevG-ci: 


<t>pdt;-G), 


a 




<( 


44 (e-(f)pad-(ja) — e-ypao-a. 


a/.eL(f>-G), 


a 


44 a\t(p (strength. a/U£0), . . {^"kei^-Ga) — r/Aetip- 



Remark 1. The vowels a, i, v, in verbs with a T-sound as 
their characteristic, are short before endings with the tense- 
characteristic g ; as, cppufa : fat. (f>paG0) : 1 aor. efypaoa : nlac- 
C7W : fut. ttTiugu : 1 aor. eirXaaa : vofit^o) : fut. vofuau : 1 aor. 
kvojucca : tcTivfa : fut. kTivgo : 1 aor. ekTivccl, &c. 

Remark 2. In e-ipsv-aa and e-(j>paG-a, the d is thrown out, 
since it can not by the laws of euphony stand before g. 

Second Aorist Active. 

I* The Second Aorist Active is formed from the pure 
or simple stem of the verb by suffixing the termination 
-ov, and prefixing the augment. And hence, its penult, as 
a general rule (to which, however, there are several excep- 
tions), is short. 

2. The stem-vowel in the second aorist admits of various 
changes. Thus, 

3. Most verbs with a stem of one syllable, and with e as 
the stem-vowel, have this vowel changed in the second 
aorist into a. 

4. The diphthong el in the middle of the stem of the 
present, or, in other words, in the strengthened stem, be- 
comes I in the second aorist. 

5. The diphthong ev in the middle of the stem of the 
present becomes v. 

6. The consonant changes have already been alluded to 
in the general remarks on Verbs Mute (page 295). They 



VERUS. 



301 



will be given again, however, below, for the sake of per- 
spicuity. 

7. We will now subjoin examples of each species of 
formation. Thus, 

1. Regular Formation, 
<ppd£-G), Pure Stem (ppad, 2 Aor. Act. e-cppad-ov. 
raTT-CD, " u ray, " " e-rdy-ov. 

2. Stem-vowel e changed into a. 

rp€7r-w, Pure Stem rpeu, 2 Aor. Act. e-Tparr-ov. 
Tpe<f)-G), " " rpefa 11 " e-rp&(p-ov. 

3. Diphthong et changed into 1. 

Xeln-G), Stem aeitt (Pure Xln), 2 Aor. Act. c./utt-ov. 
netO-v, " neid ( " ttW), " $ e-md-ov. 

4. Diphthong ev changed into v. 
<j)evy-(i). Stem (f>evy (Pure <pi>y), 2 Aor. Act. e-(pvy~ov. 
{kXevd-G)), " eXevd ( " 6Ai>0), " " ff-AvO-ov. 

3. Consonant Changes. 

7T ) ( TV7TT-GJ. e-TVTT-OV. 



t in the r sent \ f i " i/ '»"»/*'« 

7T< in e presen l ^ I j& g aor. as < BAdirr-G). e-6Xd6ov, 

becomes ) \ i * - »"~^ 

( ) ( pLTTT-G), 8ppi(j) OV. 

oo, rr " 44 y M " rdoo-o), e ~dy-ov. 

r u a \ 6 I a a \ (ppdt'hj, e-(ppdd-ov. 



y ) ( ttpd^-G), e-Kpdy-ov 

% " y " <fi op^-to, e-Ojxvyov. 

Remark 1. Strictly speaking, in those verbs in which the sec- 
ond aorist active either would not at all differ from the imper- 
fect, or only in the quantity of the same stem- vowel, the second 
aorist active is not found. The second aorist passive, however, 
is used, because this has a different ending from the imperfect. 
Thus, for example, in the verb ypd(f>o, the imperfect of which is 
£ypu<j>ov, no second aorist eypafyov is in use, but there is a sec- 
ond aorist passive kyputjnjv. So. again, in the verb kaivcj, the 
imperfect of which is £tc?uvov, no second aorist active IkAlvov 
is in use, but there is a second aorist passive hMvriv. 
C c 



302 



VERBS. 



Remark 2. As regards the peculiar relations of meaning be- 
tween the first and second aorist, the student is referred to the 
Syntax. — It may be here observed that no verb is found in 
Greek which, together with the second aorist, forms also the 
three first aorists (active, middle, and passive). Neither do we 
find any verb in which the second aorist active and middle and 
the second aorist passive are at the same time in use. But all 
verbs which form a second aorist have either only a second 
aorist active and middle, or else only a second aorist passive. 
The single exception to this remark is the verb rpEiru), which, 
along with the three second aorists, forms also the three first 
aorists ; as, irpdirov (Ionic and poetic), ETpdnSfiyv, erpanyvy 
eTpeipa (the usual form in Attic prose), ETpsipd/i^v, erpi^d-qv (sel- 
dom, but occurring in composition ; as, eniTpefdf/vai, Antiph., 
iv., 126, &c). 

Remark 3. From the last case, however, mentioned in the 
preceding remark there are some particular exceptions, in 
which either the second aorist active and middle or the second 
aorist passive only seldom appear, and for the most part in po- 
etry ; as, etvttov, Eurip.y and krvTryv : eTuttov and eTuirrjv, Horn. 

Remark 4. For other points of difference between the first 
and second aorists, consult Syntax. 

Future Active. 

1. The Future Active is formed from the pure or sim- 
ple stem by suffixing the termination -aw, and making such 
changes, when the characteristic letter and the a are 
brought into contact, as the laws of euphony require. 

2. If, however, the pure stem has been strengthened by 
lengthening its vowel, then the future is formed from this. 

3. The following are examples of formation : namely, 



rpW-G), 


Pure 


Stem rpiB, 


Fut. Act. (Tpid-GG)) 


— TpLlpG). 


KOKT-G), 


a 


" KOTTj 




= K01pG). 


'k'XeK-U, 


it 




" " (lT?iEK-GG)) 


— nM^G). 


TUTT-G)) 


ii 


" ray, 


" " (ray-GG)) 




i})evd-to, 


it 


" TpEvS, 


" " (ibEvd-ou) 


— TpEVGG). 


<ppa£-G)j 


a 


" (ppad t 


" " {(j>pdd-Gu>) 


= (j)paau. 




it 


" it id {strengthened 


ITElS), " (TTEld-GG)) 


— TTELGU). 


a?.El<p-o)i 


a 


** a%i<p ) « 


aXeHp), " {dXeL(p-Gu)) 


== dTisfyG). 



VERBS. 



303 



Second Future Active. 

1. As has already been remarked, no such tense as this 
exists, although there is a second future passive. 

2. The old mode of forming this (so called) tense was 
by suffixing g3 to the pure stem. The future in w, how- 
ever, is more correctly regarded as the regular one of verbs 
in Aw, [igj, vo), pw, that is, of liquid verbs. 

Attic Future. 
The formation of this future has already been discussed 
(page 285). 

Middle Tenses. 

IMPERFECT MIDDLE. 

1. The Imperfect Middle is formed from the verbal 
stem, as it appears in the present, by suffixing -6fjH]v, and 
prefixing the augment ; as, 

rpl6-G), Stem rpid, Imperf. Mid. £-7pib-6\ir\v. 

7r/t£/c-G), " 7rAe/e, " " e-n?LEK,-6fj,7}v. 

<ppd£-G), " (j)pa£, " " e-(ppa^-6fjL7]V. 

perfect middle. 

1. The Perfect Middle (formerly called the perfect 
passive) is formed from the pure or simple stem, or, if the 
pure stem has been strengthened by lengthening its vowel, 
then from this strengthened stem by suffixing -\iai^ and pre- 
fixing the reduplication, or else the simple augment if the 
vefb be not susceptible of the reduplication. 

2. Various changes, however, take place in accordance 
with the laws of euphony. Among others, the following 
may be mentioned. 

3. A T-sound is changed into a before fi; as, mido), 
stem ttelO, perf mid. ne-TTELd-fxai, changed by euphony to 

7TE-7TeiO.[iai. 

4. If \i goes before a P-sound as the characteristic, as, 
for example, in 7re/i7r-G), one \i is dropped in the perfect 



304 



VERBS* 



middle. Thus, rce^oy^ perf. mid. (7re-7T£^7r-jtf<u, changed 
to) nenefji-fxat : /cd/z77r-c»), perf. mid. (Ke-fiafinT-pai = «e- 
Kafifjrfiai, changed to) Ki-Ka\i-\iai. 

5. In the same manner, if two gammas come to stand 
before one of them is dropped ; as, ocfyiyyo), e-ofay-ficu. 

6. We will now proceed to give some examples of forma- 
tion : 

Perf. Mid. (rs-rpcB-pai) = rs-rpifi-fzat. 

" " (Ki-KOTT'fldC) =S= KE-KOft-fiai. 



ttTlek-cj, 

T&TT W, 

ifjevdo), 
<l>pd£-G) f 

TTEtO 0), 



Stem 

" K07T, 

" ray, 

" CLk€L<f>, 



(ni-'KAeK-nai)— Tri-nXey-fiai. 
(Te-ray-fiai) s= re-ray- fiai. 
(e-tpevd'/iai) — e-x/jeva-fiai. 
(Tri-fpad-fxai) — ne-typao-fiaL 
(7re-irei6-fj,aL) = TTE-neiG-nai. 
(jl-'AeLfy-fAai) = fj-TiELji'iiai. 



7. The third person plural of the perfect, and pluperfect 
middle or passive, which properly ends in -vtoj, -vro, as we 
have seen in the pure verbs, can not be formed in this way 
in the impure verbs (whether mute or liquid), on account 
of the concurrence of so many consonants. Hence this 
person is usually expressed by a periphrasis, consisting of 
the plural of the participle perfect, and the third person 
plural of the present and imperfect of elfiij namely, eial(v) 
and fjaav. In Epic and Ionic, however, the v is excluded 
and an a put in its place, which is aspirated after a P- or 
K- sound, but unaspirated after a T-sound ; as, 
rptS-o), Perf. Mid. rE-rpi(i-fiai y 3 Plur. rerpifi-fiivot elai{v), 

, , " " Plup. rETpifi-fisvoi fjcav 

7r7iEK-u f " " TTE-TrXey-fiai, " * s TtE-Tt'kEy-HEvoi ecgI(v). 
raGG-u, " " rs-ray-fiaij il " re-ray-fiEvoi eigc(v). 

GKEVa&G), " " E-GKEVaG-jLMlL, " " E-GKEVCLG-fXEVOl EIGL{v). 

XUpl£"Uy " '* KE-XUpiG-fiai, " " KE'X<*>pLG-HEVOl ElGl(v). 

v excluded and a inserted, 
rh-rpifi-fiaiy 3 Plur. rsrpfyarcu, Pluperf. krErplfyaro. 
nE-^Ey-fiatj " u irenXExarai. 
re-ray/uai, " " rsr&xarai. 
E-GKEvao/iat, " " kGKevddarat. 
Kt-x&piGp<u<> u " nexup'iSarcu. 

ri-TVfl-fiatf 44 *' T£T-udsa.Ttn 



VERBS. 



305 



Epic and Ionic, 



TerpKparat, 

TTeirMxaTaij 

TerdxaTai, 

ifTKevddarai, 

Ke^oypldarat, 

TETvtyarai, 



instead of TeTpt.dvrcu. 
" " tte-kAeuvtcli. 
" " rerayvrat. 
" " koKcvadvTai. 
" " Kex&pidvTat. 

6i u TETVCpVTdl. 



PLUPERFECT MIDDLE. 

1. The Pluperfect Middle (formerly called the plu- 
perfect passive) is formed from the pure or simple stem, or 
from the stem when strengthened by a vowel, by suffixing 
the termination and prefixing the reduplication with 
the augment before it, or else the augment merely if the 
verb be not susceptible of reduplication. 

2. The same euphonic changes take place here as in 
the case of the perfect middle. 

Tpi6-o, Stem rptS, Pluperf. Mid. (e-Ts-rpL6-junv) — E-re-rpfju-fiyv. 

KOTTT-U, " K07T, " " (k-KE-KOK-jLtTjV) — E-KE-KO/Ll-jUTjV. 

7T?l£K-(J, " 7T?»£K, " " (k-TTE-lzTlEK-fjLrjv) = £-7t£-1T?^£ y-f'VV. 

TarT-G), " ray, " " (k-Te-ruy-finv) == k-Te-ruy-fiTjv. 

tyevd-id, 11 ifievd, u " (k-Tpevd-firjv) — E-^EVG-}iriv. 

<pp&%-(J, " <ppad, " " (E-7T£-(ppad-/LL7]v) — £-7r£-<f>pu<7~JU7}l>. 

TTEld-U, " 7T£i0, " " {k-TTE-TTEid-firfV) == E-7T£-7r£La-ILt7]V. 

" a?i£i(t)y " " (rj-hElQ-finv) = y-TiEiju-juijv. 

3. The same remarks hold good of this tense in the third 
person plural as of the perfect. Thus, we have in the third 
person plural of k*T£-Tpi\i-\ir\v, the form TE-Tpiji-fievoi rjaav : 
in that of k-KZ-K6\i-pr\v, the form /te.tcofjL-fjievoi fjaav ; and so 
of the rest. 

4. In like manner we have, in Epie and Ionic, in the 
third person plural the rejection of v, and the a put in its 
place, with the accompanying aspiration. Thus, srerpi- 
<paro for ererpidvTO ; EireTrlexaTO for enenXetcvro, &e. 

FIRST AORIST MIDDLE. 

1. The First Aorist Middle is formed from the pure or 
simple stern by suffixing the ending -adprjv, and prefixing 
the augment. 

Cc2 



306 



VERBS, 



2. If, however, the pure stem has been strengthened by 
lengthening its vowel, the tense in question is then formed 
from this. 



3. All the changes required by euphony take place when 
the characteristic letter of the stem is brought into contact 
with the tense-ending. Thus, 



rplS-cj, 


Stem rpi6, 


1 Aor. Mid. {k-rpi6-cau.T]v) 


= E-TpapdfiTjv. 


K07TT-G), 


" /C07T, 


u " (£-fCOT7~Gd{J.7)v) 


— k-K&ibdfiTjv. 


tt/Jk-u, 




" " (k-77?,e K-(jd{17}v) 


= E-TT/.E^dfirjV. 


TUTT-U, 


" ray, 


" u {k-Tay-ndfir}v) 


= k-Ta%dfi7)v. 




" ipsvd, 


" " (k'1p£v6-(jdjLL^v) 


= k-tyEVCdflTjV. 


opd^-u, 


" (ppad, 


" " (e-opa6-cjdfi7]v) 


= k-(ppa<jd/j,7jv. 


/.6L7T-G), 


" ?>£L7T, 


u . " (k'TiELTr-ad/iTiv) 


= E-?i,Et1pdfJ.7]V. 


d?.£lO-G), 


" d?,£LO, 


" M (?]-?.Et(p-(jd{J.7]v) 


= 7]-?L£lTpdfl7]V. 



SECOND AORIST MIDDLE. 

1. The Second Aorist Middle is formed from the pure 
or simple stem by suffixing the ending -o\ir]v, and prefixing 
the augment. 

2. In forming this tense, the same changes take place in 
the stem as we have already noted in the case of the sec- 
ond aorist active. Thus, 

T£pn-u, Stem Tapir, 2 Aor. Mid. k-Tapir-ofirjv. 
Tp£7T-Q, " rparr, " " £-rpa7T-6[irjv. 

?,£L7T-0), " 7U7Z, " " £-?.L7T-6fX7]V. 

7T£td-G), " 7ZL0, " M £-7TLd-6jLL7]V. 

(3?A~t-o, M f 5Aa6, " " £-6?>a6-6(i7]v. 
Remark. As regards the number of verbs which have this 
tense, consult Remarks on page 302. 

FUTURE MIDDLE. 

1. The Future Middle is formed from the pure or sim- 
ple stem by suffixing the ending -oofiai. 

2. If, however, the pure stem has been strengthened by 
lengthening its vowel, the tense in question is then formed 
from this. 

3. AH the changes required by euphony take place when 
the characteristic letter of the stem is brought into contact 
with the tense-ending. Thus, 



VERBS. 



307 





Stem 


rpi6, 


Future Mid. (rptS-GOfLai) 


•= Tpiipofiai. 


K07TT-G), 




KOTTy 


a 


" (Kon-aofiai) 


2= Koipopat. 




(< 




a 


" (7T?i£K.-aofj.aL) 


= 7T?i€^OfiaL. 


TaTT-Uf 


it 


ray, 


n 


" (rdy-GOfxai) 




ipevd-o, 


it 


ipevd, 


it 


" (ipevd-GOjLiai) 


— TpEVGO[iaL. 


<J>pa£-co, 


(( 


(bpad, 


it 


" ((ppdd-GO[iai) 


■= (ppaGOfiai. 


2.EL7T-G), 






ti 


" (?l£tTC-GO[MlL) 


— Aetyofiai. 




i< 




a 


f {d"ket(p-GO[iai) 


== dTidipofiaL. 



ATTIC FUTURE MIDDLE. 

This tense, sometimes erroneously called the Second 
Future Middle, has already been explained (page 285). 

FUTURE PERFECT. 

This tense, sometimes, also, called the Third Future, is 
formed exactly like the future middle, except that it also 
prefixes the reduplication, or else, if the verb be not sus- 
ceptible of the reduplication, the simple augment ; as, 
Tpit-u>, Stem rpiS, Future Perf. (Te-rptS-GOfiat) — re-Tplipofiat. 

KOTtT-Uy " K07T, " " (^KE-KOTT-GOfJLCLi) = KE-KOtyOflCU. 

7T/UAC-CJ, " TT/lfTC, " " (ne-TrTiEK-GOfiai) — 7re-7c?ief;o[iai. 

TaTT-co, " ray, " " (re-rdy-Gopac) == re-rd^ofiai. 

ipevd-a), " iftevd, " " (k-ipev6-GOfiai) = k-ipevGo/iat. 



Passive Tenses. 
The Present and Imperfect Passive are formed pre- 
cisely like the corresponding tenses of the middle voice. 

first aorist passive. 

1. The First Aorist Passive is formed from the pure or 
simple stem by suffixing the ending -Orjv, and prefixing the 
augment. 

2. If, however, the pure stem has been strengthened by 
lengthening its vowel, the tense in question is then formed 
from this. 

3. All the changes required by euphony take place when 
the characteristic letter of the stem is brought into contact 
with the tense-ending ; and, in particular, a T-sound before 
a T-sound changes to <7, as we have already seen in the 
case of the perfect and pluperfect middle. Thus, 



308 VERBS. 

Tp'16-0), Stem rpi.6, 1 Aor. Pass. {k-rp'it-Brjv) — k-rpfy-drjv. 

(k-Kon-drjv) = k-KO(f)-0r]v. 
(e-7t1ek-6i]v) = k-Tz'kex-Orjv . 
(e-Tay-Or/v) — k-Tax-Oqv. 
(€-ifjev6-dr]v) — k-ipevG-drjv. 
(k-(f)pud-di]v) = E-typuG-drjv. 

Remark t. As regards the insertion of a before the tense- 
ending, consult pages 286 and 303. 

Remark 2. Some verbs which have rj in the perfect middle or 
passive, receive an e in the first aorist ; as, evpijrai, evpedrjv : 
erryvTjTat, krn^vedrjv : dtyrjpTjrai, u(j>ype0r}v. Of elprjraL (EP£2) the 
aorist is kpprfiriv and eppedrjv, though kpprjdrjv is the better form, 
and is always written so by Bekker, in Plato. The forms 
eiprjdTjv, Eipedrjv, are not Attic. 

Remark 3. Verbs which change f of the stem into o of the 
perfect active, and into a in the perfect middle or passive, take 
e again in the first aorist ; as, EOTpanrai, EGrpfydriv : TETpa7TTat t 
etpEfdrjv : TEdpanTdt, kOpEipdrjv. 

SECOND AORIST PASSIVE. 

1. The Second Aorist Passive is formed from the pure 
or simple stem by suffixing -rjv, and prefixing the augment. 

2. In forming this tense, the same changes take place in 
the stem as we have already noted in the case of the sec- 
ond aorist active. Thus, 



Tpi6-CJ t 


Stem TptS, 


2 Aorist Passive 


£-Tpl6-7}V. 




" jfo* 


tt 


it 


k-Safy-qv. 


ttIek-io, 


" ttIek, 


tt 


it 


k-TzldK-rjv. 


ullaGG-O 


i " allay !, 


ii 


ii 


riWay-iiv. 


dpTcaZ-o), 


" upitay t 


U 


tt 


TjpTzdy-Tjv. 


Tpt(j>-(O t 


" rpsfr 


tt 


it 


£-Tpd(f)-7]V. 


GTpfy-G), 


" GTpsfa 


it 


11 


E-GTpd(j>-1]V. 




" Ga7T, 


it 


ii 


E-GaTT-TJV, 



FIRST FUTURE PASSIVE. 

1. The First Future Passive is formed from the pure 
or simple stem by suffixing -drjoofiai. 

2. If, however, the pure stem has been strengthened by 
lengthening its vowel, the tense in question is then formed 
from this. 





" K07T, 


ttIek-cj, 




TUTT-Oy 


" ray, 


TpEvd-O, 


" ipEvd, 


fppd£~Oi 


" <j>pad, 


TiEin-G), 


" Xelk, 



VERBS. 309 



3. All the changes required by euphony take place when 
the characteristic letter of the stem is brought into contact 
with the tense-ending. Thus, 



TptS-G), 


Stem rpi6, 


1 Future Pass 


{Tpib-driGOfiai) 


— Tpify-drjGOfiai. 


KOKT-LJ, 


" KOTT, 


n 


tt 


{KOTT-drjGOfJLai) 


= fco(p-8^GOjuac. 


ttaek-g), 


14 kAek, 


tt 


a 


{TrTieK-drjoofiaC) 


= Tr^ex-drjaofiac. 


T&TT-IJ, 


" ray, 


a 


a 


(ray-d/jGOfiai) 


= Tax-Brjoofiai. 


Tpevd-u, 


" ipevd, 


(I 


a 


(ip£vd-dT)O0[iai) 


— ^)EVG-&r)GOfiaL. 




" <bpad, 


it 


tt 


(typad-drjconai) 


— ^paG-drjaofiaL. 


Ae'iit-u, 


" aectt, 


a 


a 


(k£nz-dr]CO[iai) 


— Xei<ff-6rjGOfj,aL. 


Trdd-u, 




tt 




{neid-dTjOoiiat) 


= ireiG-d7]GO(iai 



SECOND FUTURE PASSIVE. 

1. The Second Future Passive is formed from the 
pure or simple stem by suffixing -rjoofiaL. 

2. In forming this tense, the same changes take place in 
the stem as we have already noted in the case of the sec 
ond aorist active. Thus, 



Tpl6-(0, 


Stem Tpi6> 


2d Future Pass 


. rp 1.6-i} go fiat . 


K07TT-G), 


" K07T, 


<< a 


K017-T)GOfiai. 




u izAek, 


a a 


7T?.aK-r}GOjLtat. 


TQ.TT-U, 


" ray, 


a tt 


Tay-TjGOficu. 




" (ftpad, 




(ppad-r/Gofiai. 




" AlK, 


n tt 


ALTT-T/GOfiaC. 



PARADIGM OF MUTE VERBS. 
L Verbs whose Root is a P-sound (tt, j3, cf>). 
Pure Characteristic : tt, /J, <p {fuU i/x*)). 
Active Voice. 
XeLttg), I leave. 
Moods and Tenses. 





Indicative. 


Imperative. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


In fin. 


Part. 


Present, 
Imperfect, 


AEL7T-(j, 


| Atlrt-E, 


-OtfLL, 


-CJ, 


-ELV, 




Perfect 1, 


Xe-TieKp-a, 


| ?J-AEL(j>-£, 


-OLLLl, 


-0), 


-Even, 


-(5c, 


Pluperfect 1, 


E-TiE-TiElfy-ElV, 


Perfect 2, 
Pluperfect 2 


AE-Aonr-a, 

k-/ E-AOITT-ELV, 


^ a£-aoltt-e, 


-Otflt, 


-G), 


-Evai, 


-ug, 


Aorist 1, 


E-TlEllpa, 




-blfJl, 


-6J, 


-at, 


-qq, 


Aorist 2, 


8-AlTT-OVj 


Ai'tt-e, 


-OLfll, 


-W, 


-ELV, 


-6v, 


| Future, 


AELljj-U, 




-Ot.jLtL, 




-ELV, 


-wv. 



310 



VERBS. 



Remark. The verb "Xt'or-cd has no first perfect and pluperfect 
active in use, nor any second aorist passive. The first aorist 
active, moreover, only occurs in late authors. (Lobeck, ad 
Phryn.y p. 713.) We have given, however, the complete para- 
digm, for the convenience of the student. In verbs pure, it 
will be remembered, we gave no instance, in the paradigm, of the 
second perfect and pluperfect active, nor of the second aorist, 
as Kiihner has done, because pure verbs are never entitled to 
such tenses. 



NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present. / leave. 

S. Xeltt-g), Adn-eig, Xeitt-ei, 

D. Xsin-Erov, XetTT-erov, 

P. Xeln-oiiev, Xeltt-ete, Xecn-ovai(v). 

Imperfect. / was leaving. 

S. e-Xein-ov, e-Xein-Eg, e-Xeitt-e, 

D. e-XelnsTOV, e-Xeltt-ettiv, 

P. e-Xeiit-o\i£V 9 e-Xeitt-ete, e-Xeot ov. 

First Perfect. I have left. 
S. XE-XsMp-a, XE-XEL(j)-ag, Ae-Ae^-g, 

D. X£'Xsi(f)-a,TOV 9 XE-XEL(j).aTOV, 

P. XE'XEfy-afiEV, Xe-Xel<P-g,te 9 X£-XEL(f)-ci<n(v). 
First Pluperfect. I had left. 

S. £-X£-X£l<p-£LV, E-XE-XEL(f)-£ig, £-XE-X£L<f)-£L, 

D. £-X£-XEl<i)~£lTOV, £-X£-X£L(j)-£LT7]V, 

P. £-X£-X£L(f).£LfJ,£V, LX£-X£L^)-£tTE, £~X£-X£l(j)-£OaV. 

Second Perfect. I have left. 

S. Xs-Xonr-a, Xi-XoLiT-ag, Xe-Xoitt-e* 

D. XE-XoiTc-drov, XE-XoiTT-drov, 

P. XE-Xoin-dfiEv, XE-Xoin-drE, ? v E.XoLn-dai(v). 

Second Pluperfect. I had left. 

S. E-XE'XoLTT-ELV, E-XE-XOLTT-Eig, E~Xe-X017T'£1, 

D. E-Xe-Xo'oT'EITOVj E-Xe-X017T-£IT7]V, 

P. e-Xe~Xo17t-ei[j,£V, e-Xe-XoIit-elte, £-X£-X0LlT-EOaV. 



VERBS/ 311 

First Aorist. 2" left. 

S. e-Xeiip-a, E-XEiip-ac;, e-Xetifj-e, 

D. E-Xety-aTOV, E-XEtip~aT7jv, 

P. eXsixfj-dfiev, e-Xetxp-dre, e-Xei^-ov. 

Second Aorist. J left. 

S. e-Xltc-ov, s-Xtn-ec, e-Xlrr-e, 

D. E-XlTT-ETOV, S-XlTT'ETTjV, 

P. e-Xi7T-o[j£V, e-Xitt-ete, e-Xltt-ov. 

Future. I will leave. 

S. Xefy-G), Xeiip-eig, Xeiip-et, 

D. Xefy-STOv, Xelif)-erov, 

P. Xeit/j-Ofiev, Xeiip-sre, Xei\jj-ovoL(v). 



Imperative Mood. 
Present. Be leaving. 

S. Xeln-e, Xein-ero), 
D. Xeltt-etov, Xeltt-etcjv, 

P* XeITT-ETE, XELlT-ETG)OaV. 

First Perfect. Have left. 

S. Xe-XemP-e, Xe-Xel^-etg), 
D. Xe-Xel^-etov^ Xe-Xei<P-etg)v, 

P. XE-XsL(f)-ETE, XE'XEKp-ETOOaV. 

Second Perfect. Have left. 

S. Xe-Xoitt-s, Xe-Xoltt-etg), 
D. Xe-Xoitt-etov, Xe-Xoltt-etcjv, 
P. Xe-Xoltt-ete, XE-XoiTT-ETGXJaV. 

First Aorist. Leave. 

S. XeI^-ov, Xei^-&tg), 
D. XEiip-arov, XEiip-arov, 
P. Xsiip-aTE, XEi-ip-aroaav. 

Second Aorist. Leave. 

S. At7T-£, XlTT-ETG), 
D. XlTT-ETOV, XlTT-ETGJV, 
P. Xln-ETE, XiTT-ETUOaV. 



312 VERBS. 

Optative Mood. 
Present. / might be leaving. 

S. XeLTT'OLfJiL, XeLtt-olc, Xe'nr-oi y 

D. Xeltt-oitov, Xeltt-oittiv, 

P. Xeln-oifjiev, Xeitt-oite, Xeltt-ocev. 

First Perfect. I might, fyc, have left. 

S. Xe-Xety-oifii, Xe-Xel^-olc, Xe-Xei<p-oi, 
D. Xe-Xeiifi-QiTOV, ?^e-Xet(f>'OtTT]V, 

P. Xe-Xeiti-oifieV) Xe-Xel^-oite, Xe-XeL^-olev. 

Second Perfect. / might, fyc, have left, 
S. Xe-XoLTT'Oific, Xe-Xoin-otg, Xe-Xoitt-oi, 

D. Xe-XOLTT-OITOV, Xe'XoiTT-OLTTjV, 

P. Xs-Xoin-oifiev, Xe.Xoitt-oite, Xe-Xoctt-olev. 

First Aorist. I might, fyc, leave. 

S. Xeixfj-aLfJit, XeLx/j-at^, Xefy-ai, 

D. Xeti/j-airov, /Uti/j-am?v, 

P. XeLip-aifiev, Xsixp-aire, Xecx/j-acev. 

Second Aorist. / might, fyc, leave. 
S. Xijr-oLfii, XtTT-oig, Xltt-ol, 

D. XlTT-OlTOV, Xl7T'OLT7]V, 

P. Xin-oifjLsv, Xin-oire, Xin-oiev. 

Future. I might be about to leave. 

S. XEity-oiya, Xei*I)-oi$> Xelxf)-oi, 

D. Xelxp-otrov, Xeixft-ocTTjv, 

P. Xelip-otfiev, Xeiip-oire, XEiip-otEV. 



Subjunctive Mood. 

Present. I may be leaving. 
S. XeCtt-g), XEiTT-yg, XeltT'XI, 

D. XEi7T^7]TOV, XeLTT'TJTOV^ 

P. XEtn-CdjlEV, XeItX-7)TE, XEL7T~0)(n(v). 

First Perfect. I may have left. 
S. Xe-Xel^-cj, Xe-Xefy-qs, Xe-Xei^'Xi, 

D. XE-XElcp-TjTOV, X£'XEl(f)-7]TOV, 

P. Xe-XeI^CO/MEV, XE-?M(f)'7jTE, XE-X£l(j)-<*)<n(v). 



VERBS. 313 

Second Perfect. I may have left. 

S. Xe-Xoin-G), Xe-Xotn-qg, Xe-Xoiix-xi, 

D. Xe-Xoln-TjTOV, Xe-XoLTT-rjTov, 

P. Xe-Xoln-ojfjLev, Xe-XoLn-rjre, Xe-XoiTC-G)oi. 

First Aorist. / may leave. 

S. Xetip-G), Xety-qg, Xelip-iri, 

D. Xety-TjTOv, Xefy-TjTOV, 

P. Xefy'G)[iev, Xel\p-r]T£, Xety-oyou 

Second Aorist. i" may leave. 

S. XCn.G), Xin-'qg, XCn-^ 

D. XlTT'TJTOV, XlTT-7]TOV, 

P. Xtn-<o[iev, Xin-rjTe, Xiix-ugi. 



Participials. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, Xeln-etv, to be leaving. 

First Perfect, Xe-Xei<f)-evai, to have left. 
Second Perfect, X€-Xonr~evai, to have left. 
First Aorist, XeZip-cu,, to leave. 
Second Aorist, Xnr-elv, to leave. 
Future, Xslip-eiv, to be about to leave. 

Participles. 

Present. Leaving. 

N. Xein-w, XeLix-ovoa, XeZn-ov, 

G. Xei'n-ovrog, Xein-ova7]g, XeiTT-ovrog, &c. 

First Perfect. Having left. 

N. Xe-XeL(f)'G)g^ Xs-Xeicfi-vlaj Xe-Xet<j).6g, 

G. Xe-Xei(j)-6Tog, Xe-Xeicfr-vlag, Xe-Xet^-orog, &c. 

Second Perfect. Having left. 

N. Xe-Xoin-tig, Xe-Xoin-vla, Xe-Xotn-og, 

G. Xe-Xonr-OTog, Xe-Xonr-vtag, Xe-Xoin-OTog, &c. 

First Aorist. Having left. 

N. Xety-dg, Xefy-doa, XeZx^-dv, 

G. Xety-avrog, XeLifj'&Grjg, Xsiip-avrog* Sec. 

D d 



314 VERBS, 

Second Aorist. Having left. 

N. Xitt-cjv, Xiir-ovoa, Xlttov, 

G. Xin-ovrog, Xin-ovorjg, Xm-ovrog, &c. 

Future. About to leave. 

N. Xefy-ov, kefy-ovaa, Xel^-ov, 

G. Xefy-ovrog, XEi^-ovG^g, XEtip-ovrog, &c. 



MIDDLE VOICE. 
XeiTT-oiiai, I leave for myself. 
Moods and Tenses. 



Present, 
Imperfect, 
Perfect, 
Pluperf., 
Aorist 1, 
Aorist 2, 
Future, 
Fut. Perf., 


Indicative. 


lmperativ e. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


"ktln-OiiaL, 
E-7ifLK-6flT]V, 

k-Tie-Tieiii-firjv, 
k-Tinip-afirjv, 

k-2,L7r-6/Ll71V f 

Tieitp-ofiat, 
Tie-Xefy-ofiat., 


| TiELTT-OV, 
) 7lE-?i£L- 

"kElty-at, 
Tiin-ov, 


-jLtflEVO£ 

eItjv, 
-oijiriv, 


-fijuivoc 
d, 


-ECtdai, 
-<p6at, 

-aaQai. 
-ecrdai, 
-Eodai, 
-Eadai, 


-SfiEvog, 
•fifxivog, 

-dfisvoc, 

-OjUEVOC, 
-OflEVOg, 
-OflEVOg. 



NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 

Indicative Mood. . 

Present. / am leaving for myself 

S. Xein-ofiat, Xeltt-ei, XEin-ETaL, 

D. ksL7T-6fiedov, Xein-eodov, Xsin-eodov, 
P. Xenr-dfieOa, Xeltt-eoQe, Xeln-ovTai. 

Imperfect. I was leaving for myself 

S. e-Xein-6[jL7jv, e-Xeltt-ov, e-Xeltt-eto^ 
D. E-Xenr-ofiedov, e-Xeltt-eoOov, e-Xeltt-egOtjv, 
P. E-Xein-oiiEQa, e-Xeltt-eoOe, e-Xeitt-ovto. 

Perfect. I have left for myself 

S. XE-XEifjL-fjLai, XE-X£iipai, XE-XEin-Tai, 

D. Xe-Xei\l~\ieQov, Xe-Xek^-Oov, XLXel^-Sov, 
P. Xe-XeI^i-^ieBcl^ Xe-Xelc^-Oe, Xe-Xei\i-\ievoi el- 

oi(v)< 



VERBS. 315 

Pluperfect. I had left for myself 

S. e-Xe~Xelu-[i7]v, k-Xi-XEiipo, e-Xe-Xeitt-to, 

D. E-XE.XEifjL-fiEdov, E-Xi-XEiip-Oov, e-Xe-Xei^-Oi^v , 

P. E-XE-XEifjL-fiEda, e-Xe-XekP'Oe, Xe-Xei\L'\ievqi fjaav 

First Aorist. I left for myself 

S. E-XEl\j)-d[J[,r]V, E-XEl1p-(*), k-XEL^-aro, 

D. E-XEt^p dfXE60V, E-XEMp-aoOoV, £-XEl^p'da$7JV, 

P. E-XEtxp-dfiE6a, E-XEiip.aodE) E-Xsty-avro. 
Second Aorist. I left for myself 

S. E-Xl7T-6(J,T}V, E-XlTT-OV, E-Xln-ETO, 

D. E'Xin-dfjLEdov, LXin-EoOov, e-Xht-eo6t]V, 

P. E-XiU-OllEda, E-Xl7T-EOd£) E-XtTT'OVTO. 

Future. I will leave for myself 

S. XELlfj-Ofiai, XEL1p-EC, XEllp-ETat, 

D. XEl\jj-6fIE$OV, XEl\p-£Od0V, XEC'lp-ECdoV, 

P. XEwp-ofiEda, Xe^ecSe, XEty-ovrai. 

Future Perfect. / will have left for myself 

S. X£-X£L1p-OfXaL, X£-XEty-El, XE'XELIp-ETai, 

D. Xe-Xeli^-o/heSov, Xe-XeliP-eoOov, XE-XEty-EOdoV, 
P. XE-XEtxjj-dfJLEda, Xe-XeliP-eoOe, XE-XEl\p-ovrac. 



Imperative Mood. 

Present. Be leaving for thyself 

S. Xeltt-ov, X£L7T-E06g), 

D. XeItt-eoOov, Xeltt-egOgjv, 

P. Xeltt-eo6e, XELTT-EoOodoav, usually -eoOcov. 

Perfect. Have left for thyself. 

S. XE-XEL1pO, XE-XElty-dd), 

D. Xe-XekP-Oov, Xe-Xel<P-6g)v, 

P. Xe-XehP-Oe, Xs-XEtcp-dojoav, usually -6cjv. 

First Aorist. Leave for thyself 

S. XEixp-ac, XEiip-doOo), 

D. XELip-aodov, XEiifj-doQcjv, 

P. XEii/j-aodE, XEL\f)-dod(o<Tav 9 usually -aodov. 



316 



VERBS. 



Second Aorist. Leave for thyself. 

S. Xl7T-OV, XnT-EO0(*), 

D. Xitt-eoOov, Xitt-eoOcov, 

P. Xnr-evde, XLTT-EoQ(*)oav, usually -ecrflwv. 



Present. 

S. XeiTT-OlfJLTjV, 

D. XeiTT-oifiedov, 
P. Xenr-oliieOa, 

Perfect. 



Optative Mood. 

I might be leaving for myself 

XeItt-oio, XeCtt-olto, 
Xeltt-oloOov , Xein-oiodrjv, 
Xeln-oiode, Xeltt-olvto. 

I might have left for myself 

S. Xe-XeLu-jjievog eltjv, elrjg, eltj, 
D. Xe-Xeifi-iievG), eltjtov, elrjTTjv, 

P. Xe-Xei\l-\ievoi eltjiiev, Eir\TE, ELiyoav. 

First Aorist. / might leave for myself 

S. XEii[)-alijL7]v, XEtip-aio, XEhp-airo, 

D. XELip-alfiEdov, XEiifi-ataOov, XEiip-atadTjv, 
P. XELip-alfiEOa, XEii/j-aiodE, XEii/j-aivro. 

Second Aorist. I might leave for myself 



S. Xm-oijiTjv, 
D. XiTT-oi\iEOov y 

P. XL7T-OL(jLEda, 

Future. 
S. Xeli[)-olii7]v, 

D. XEllp-OlfJLEdoV, 
P. XELTp-OlllEda, 

Future Perfect 



Xln-oio, 

Xtn-otadov, 

Xltt-oioOe, 



XlTC-OLTO, 

Xin-OLoOrjv, 
Xltc-olvto. 



S. X£-XEl1p-Ol(jL7}V, 
D. XE'XEllp-OLfJLEdoV, 

P. XE-XEcty-oiiiEda, 



I might he about to leave for myself 

XElXp-OLO, XELIp-OtTO, 

XEiip-otoOov, Xst'ip-olaOrjv, 

XeLi/j-OIoOe, XEl\j)-OlVTO. 

I might have been about to leave, &c. 

Xe-Xei^P'OIo, Xe-Xel^-oito, 
Xe-XeIiP-oioOqv, X£-XEL\j)-0iod7jV, 
Xe-Xei^'OloOe, Xe-Xel^'OLvto. 



S. XEl7T-(*)fJLaL, 
D. XeLTT- (jJ^eOoV, 
P. XElTT-UfXEOa, 



Subjunctive Mood. 
Present. I may be leaving for myself 
Xeltt-v, ?Mn.7}Tai, 

?.EL7T-7ja60V i XeL7T-7]O0oV, 

XELn-rjade, XEiTT-bdvrai. 



VERBS. 317 

Perfect. / may have left for myself 

S. Xe-Xetfi-iievog %f, 
D. Xe-XsLfi-fisvo), fjrov, fjrov, 

P. Xe-XeifjL-fjLevoL (hper, rjre, cjoi(v). 

First Aorist. J may leave for myself. 

S. Xety-G)[iai, Xefy-xi) Xel\p'?]Tai, 

D. Xei^-cjfjLedov, Xetip-rjadov, Xetip-rjodov, 
P. Xeup-ufieda, Xety-rjoOe, Xetxjj-ojvrai, 

Second Aorist. I may leave for myself 

S. XC7T~o)fiai, Xirr-'Q, Xln-^rai, 

D. Xur-G)fieOov, Xtn-TjaOov, Xltt-tjoOov, 
P. Xnr-cjfieOa, XtiT'7]a6s, Xin-cjvrau 



Participials. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, Xetn-eaOat, to be leaving for one's self 
Perfect, Xe-XelQ-dai, to have left for one's self 
First Aor., Xefy-aodai,, to leave for one's self 
Second Aor., Xtn-eodai, to leave for one's self 
Future, Xeiip-eoOai, to be about to leave for one's self 
Fut. Perf., Xe-Xelip-eodai, to have been about to leave for 

one's self 



Participles. 

Present, Xetn-dfjisvog, -ofievrj, -ofievov, &c, leaving 
for one's self 

Perfect, Xe-Xeifi-iievog, -fievrj, -jievov, &c, having 
left, Sic. 

Aorist 1, Xei\p-d[iEVog, -afievn, -dfievov, &c, having 
left, Sic. 

Aorist 2, Xm-ofievoc, -oiievrj, -6\le.vov, Sic, having 
left, Sic. 

Future, Xeiip-oiievog, -ofievr], .6\ievov, Sic, about to 
leave, Sue 

Fut. Perf., Xe-Xetip-ofievog, -ofxevn, -6\ievov, &c, about to 
have left, Sic 

Dd2 



318 



VERBS. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 
XetTT-ofjiai, I am left. 
Moods and Tenses. 





Indicative. 


Imperative. 


Optative. 


Subjunct. 


lnfin. 


ParticipL 


Present, 


TiElTT- 












Imperf., 


OflCU, 
E-TlELTZ- 


> XeItt-ov. 

] 


-OLfllJVy 




-eadat, 


-OjLLEVOg, 


Perfect, 


ofirjv, 
\e-\ei\l- 












Pluperf., 


fiai, 


J 


-fzfiivog 


-fifievog 
(5, 


-(j)6at, 


-fifiEvog, 


Aorist 1, 


e-Xel^- 
6r)v, 




-6u> y 


-6i}vat } 


-dele, 


Aorist 2, 
Future 1, 


E-XlTT-IJV, 

Tieup-Or]- 




-einv> 
-Otjgo'l- 


-w, 


-fjvac, 
-drjoeo- 


-07] GO {IE- 


Future 2, 


crofiai, 

9lL7T-7]GO- 




-rjGoi- 




6ai y 
-rjoea- 


vp<;\ 
-7] a 6(ie- 


F. Perf., 






fl7)Vy 

-OLflVV, 




dai, 
-eoOat, 


-O^IEVOQ. 



NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 

Present. / am being left. 

S. XetTT-ofiai, Xeltt-ei, Xet7T-erac 9 

D. XetTT-ofXEdov, Xeltt-egOov, XeItt-eoOov, 
P. Xei7T-6fieda 9 Xeitt-egOe, XeiTT-ovrat. 

Imperfect. I was being left. 

S. e-XsLTT-SjjiTiv, e-Xeltt-ov, s-Xeltt-eto, 
D. E-XetTT'dfiedov, s-Xein-eadov, e-Xei7T-eo67]v, 
P. e-Xei7T-6[j,e0a, e-XeItt-egOe, e-Xeitt-ovto. 

Perfect. I have been left. 
S. Xe-XeifjL-fjLat, Xe-Xeiipai, Xe-XeiTr-Tai, 



D. Xe-Xsip-fieOov, 
P. Xe-XsLfJi-fjieda, 



Xe-XeMp-Oov, 
Xe-XeMp-Oe, 



Xe-Xet(j>-0ov 9 
Xe-Xei\i-\levqi sl- 
at (v). 



Pluperfect. I had been left 

S. £-Xe-XeL(jL-fj,7]v 9 e-Xe-Xecipo, e-Xe-Xeitt-to, 
e-Xe-Xetip'Oov, E-Xs-Xsty-drjv, 
e-Xe-Xetifi-de, Xe-Xsifi-fievoL 
7\oav. 



D. e-Xe-Xei\l-\leQov, 

P. E-XE-XElfl-pEda, 



VEUBri. 319 

First Aorist. / was left. 

S. e-Xe'Mb-driv, e-Xet^-Orjg, e-X$i<p Or], 

D. e-Xelip-OrjTOV, £-Xei(p-07jTrjv, 

P. e-Xet(j>-Qri{iEV, e-Xelfp-Orjrs, 8-Xel<j)~driGav. 

Second Aorist. I was left. 
S. £-/U7T-?/i>, e-Xtn-qg, e-Xtn-ri, 

D. £'XlTC-7}TOV, k-\nt-7]T7\V \ 

P. e-XiTT'Tjiiev, e-XlTT-rjre, e~Xin'?]Gav. 

First Future. I will be left, 

S. XeKp-drjooftai,, XeMp-OrjoeL, XeL^drjGerai, 
D. kei(p-dr]G6[Ae0ov, XeHp-drjoeoOov, XeMp-OrjoeoOov, 
P. Xenp-drjaofjieda, Xeup-drjoeode, Xet(p-6rjGovraL. 

Second Future. I will be left. 

S. XtTr-rjao^aL, Xirr-rjaet, XiTT-rjGsrat, 

D. XiTT-TjadfieOov, XiTr-rjaeoOov, Xnr-rjGeoOov, 
P. Xm-7}o6fie0a, XiTT-rjOEoOe, Xtn-rjaovrat. 

Future Perfect. I will have been left. 

S. Xe-Xeiijj-oiiai, Xe-Xety-ei, Xe-Xei^eraL, 
D. Xe-Xst'ip'OfjLedov, Xe-Xety-eoOov, Xe-Xefy-eodov, 
P. Xe.Xeiip-dfjLeOa, Xe-XeLip-eade, Xe-Xelip-ovrai. 

Imperative Mood. 
Present. Be getting left. 

S. Xein-ov, Xetn-eGdojy 

D. XsItt-€gOov, XetTT-eoOov, 

P. Xeln-eoOe, Xecn-eGdojaav, usually -eaduv. 

Perfect. Have been left. 

S. Xe-Xeiip-o, Xe-Xel<j)-0(i), 

D. Xe-Xei(f)-0ov, Xe-Xeiifi-Ouv, 

P. Xe-XsKp-Oe', Xe-Xelcfr-duGav, usually -0<*>i>. 

First Aorist. Be left. 

S. Xe[<p-QrjTL, Xei(j) 6rjTG), 

D. Xel(f)-6rjTOV, Xetifi-OrjTOV, 
P. Xei<p-07]Te, XeKp-drjrcoGav , 



320 VERBS?. 

Second Aorist. Be left. 
S. Xiir-rfii, Xin-rjTG), 

D. Xl7T-7JTOV 9 Xl7T-TJTG)V, 

P. Xitt-tjte, Xin-rjTteoav. 

Optative Mood. 
Present. I might be getting left. 

S. XetTT-otfi^Vj Xeltt-oio, Xe'itx-oitOj 

D. ketTT-otfiEdov, Xeltt-oioOov, XeiTT-oiodrjv, 
P. hem-oLfjieda, Xeln-oiode, Xuit-oivro. 

Perfect. / might have been left. 

S. Xe-Xeip-iievog eltjv, Eirjg, eltj, 

D. Xe-XeifjL-fievG), eltjtov, eItjttjv, 

P. Xe~XeI\1-\IEVOI ELTJfjLEV, ELTJTE, ELTJOaV. 

First Aorist. I might be left. 
S. XEMfr'dEiTjv, XEMp-OEirjg, Xei(f)-6Et7j, 

D. ?,El(f)'dECriTOV, XEl(f)-dEL7jT7jV, 

P. XEMp-dEliyfieV, XEt(p-dEL7jTE, XeK^'QeLtJOOV . 

Second Aorist. J might be left. 
S. Xnr-EtrjVj Xin-EiTjg, Xitt-eItj, 

D. Xin-S17]T0V, XlTT- ELTJTTJV 9 

P. ?UTr-eL7JfjLEV, XlTT-ELrjTS, XvK-ElTJGaV . 

First Future. I might be about to be left. 

S. XEKp-drjooLixrjv, XEKf>-6rjaoio, XEHfy-OrjootTO, 
D. XEi(j)'drjooi[jLE6ov, XEL(f> Orjaoiodov, XEify-QrjooioQrjVi 
P. XEL(j)'d7jaoLjjiE0a, XEL(f>-BrjooiodE, XEi(b-6rjooivTO. 

Second Future. I might be about to be left. 

S. Xin ?jGotfi7jv, XtTT-rjcFoio, Xin-rjaoLTO, 
D. Xm-rjaotfJiEdov, Xitt-tjooloOov, Xnx-rjooladrjv^ 
P. Xtn-rjooLiiEda, Xin-rjooioOE, Xitt-tjooivto. 

Future Perfect. J might have been about to be left. 

S. X£-XEiip-oLfj,rjv, Xe-Xel^j-oio, Xe-Xe'iiI>-oito, 
D. XE-XEiip-otfisdov, XE-XELtjj-oiodov, Xe-Xei^-oioBjjv, 
P. XE'teixp-oljjLEOa, Xe-XeliP'OLoOe, Xe-Xetip-oivro. 



VERBS. 321 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present, I may be getting left. 

S. XelTc-G)[iai, XeiTT-%i, XeiTT-rjrai, 

D. Xem G)(ieOov, Xeln-rjoOov, Xeirc-'qodov, 
P. Xetn-uiieda, Xeiix-t]gQe, XetTT-Gjvrat. 

Perfect. / may have been left. 

S. Xe-Xsifi-fievog c5, fa, 

D. Xe-Xetfi-fievo), rjrov, faov, 

P. Xe-Xeifi-fievoi tifiev, rjre, cj<jc(v). 

First Aorist. i" may be left. 

S. Xei<f)-du), XeKp-Ofa, Xetcp-Oq, 

D. XeKp-drjrov, Xeup drjrov, 

P. XeMfr'OtifiEV, XeKp-OrjTE, Xet<p-6wGc(y). 

Second Aorist. I" may be left. 
S. Xin-cj, Xin-fa, Xin-q, 

D. Xl7T.7jTOV, XtTT'TjTOV, 

P. Xtn-oj/jLev, Xin-rjTe, Xitt-6)Oi(v). 



Participials. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, Xetn-eodat, to be getting left. 

Perfect, Xe-Xel<p-dai, to have been left. 

Aorist 1, Xei<p-6rjvat, to be left. 

Aorist 2, Xtir-rjvaL, to be left. 

Future 1, XeMb-OrjcreoOai, to be about to be left. 

Future 2, Xin-rjoeoOai, to be about to be left. 

Fut. Perf., Xe-Xeiip-eoOai, to have been about to be left. 



Participles. 

Present, Xei7T-6fj,Evog, -ojuiEvrj, 
left. 

Perfect, Xe XEifi-fXEvog, -fiEVT], 
been left. 

Aorist 1, Xet(p-deig, -Beta a, 

Aorist 2, Xin-elg, -eloa, 



-ofjievov, 
-juevov, 



getting 
having 



-Sev ( P . Hi), left, 
-ev (p. HI), left. 



322 



VERBS. 



Future 1, XsL(f)-d7ja6p,evog,-drjaop,£vi] J '67]a6pevov J about to 

be left. 

Future 2, Xcn-Tjoouevog, -rjaoftevn, -7]a6pevov, about to 
be left. 

Fut. Perf., As-Ae^-ojuevo^, -ofisvrj, -djuevov, having 
been about to be left. 



CONDENSED PARADIGMS. 
Impure Characteristic : ttt in the Present and Imperfect. 
(Future -t/>g)). 

K07TT-G), I CUt. 



Present, 
Imperfect, 
Perfect 1, 
Pluperf. 1, 
Perfect 2, 
Pluperf. 2, 
Aorist 1, 
Aorist 2, 
Future 1, 
Future 2, 
Fut. Perf., 


ACTIVE. 


MIDDLE. 


PASSIVE. 


KOTTT-Oy 
E-K07TT-OV, 
K€-KO(f)-a. 
E-KE-KOty-ElV, 

KE-Kon-a (Horn.), 

E-KE-K07T-EIV, 
E~K01p-a t 

( Wanting), 


KOTCT-OfiaLy 
E-KOTTT-6/inv, 
K£-KO/J,-/J.ai, 
E-KE'KOjl-fJLrjV, 


KOTTT-OJbtdC, 
E-K07TT- OfJLTjV, 
KE-KO/LL-fiaC, 
E-KE- KOfJ-finV , 


> 


i 


> 

k-nmp-afinv, 
( Wanting), 

KOljj-O/LLai, 


y 

E-KO(j)-dnv } 
k-Kon-nv, 

KO^-drjdOjLtai, 

KOTZ-rjooiiai, 

KE-KOIp-Ofiat. 


> 


KE-KOTp-Ofiai, 





So, tcdfj,7TT-G), I bend ; fut. fcdfuibG) : aorist e-Kafiip-a : 
perf. mid. or pass. KE-Ka\i\iai (instead of k£- fcafip,- fiat). 



fS. 



D 



Indic. ^ 



KE-Kafl-jLLCLL, 
KE-Ka/LLtpat, 
KE-KCLflTTTai, 
KE- KUflflEOoV, 

Ke-Kaju(pdov, 

KE-KdfMpOoV, 

P. 1 KE-KdfifieBa, 

2 K£-Ka/U(pdE y 

3 K£-Ka[lfJL£VOL £1(7 l(y), 



Imperative. 

KE-KCLfllpO, 
KE-KU,jLl(}>d0) 7 

KE-KCLfMpdoV, 
K£-Ka(JL<pdoV, 

K£-Ka/I(j)d£, 

K£-Kdfi(j)dcj(7av or 

KEKUUfbdw, 



Infinitive. 
KE-Kafi(j)6aL, 

Participle. 

KE-KClflflEVOC, n, ov. 



II. Verbs whose Characteristic is a K sound (k, y, x)- 



Pure Characteristic ^ 
7> %> * 



Impure Characteristic in the pres 
ent and imperfect aa (A 
more rarely f< 



epres- ) 
tL rr), 5 



irkeit-G), I plait ; fut. -go). 



VERfes. 323 
raaa-G), Att. Tarr-G), I arrange. 





ACTIVE. 


MIDDLE. 


ACTIVE. 


MIDDLE. 


Present, 

Imperfect, 

Perfect, 

Pluperf., 

Aorist I, 

Future, 

Fut. Perf., 


e-TTAEK-OV, 
TTE-TZAEX-CL, 
E-1Z£-1TAEX~ ELV i 

E-nAESa, 

7iAE^-D, 


TTAEK-OflCLl, 

k-7TAEK-6fIT]V, 

TTE-TTAEy-fiat, 

E^7TE-7:?iEy-fJ,7]V, 

E-Tr?.E^-djU7]V, 

7T?J^-OfiaCy 

TTE-TTAEtj-O/LLai, 


TUGG-U, 
E-TdGG-OV, 

TE-Tax-a, 

E-TE-Tdx-ZlV, 

s-ra^a. 

TU%-G), 


TUGG-Ofiai, 

k-raGG-6/j.7]v, 
TE-Tay-fiai, 

£-T£'Tdy-fL7]V, 

E-Tn^-d/i7]V, 

rdtj-ofiai, 

TE-rd^-ojiaL. 


PASSIVE. 


Aorist 1, 


k-TTAEx-Grjv, 

k-TzlaK-'qv and e-ttaek-7]v, 
n?.aK-7}(jo/LLaL. 


k-ray-yv, 
Tax-Or/GOfiat, 

Tay-TjGOfJLO.l. 


Aorist 2, 
Future 1, 
Future 2, 



Inflection of the Perfect Middle or Passive. 
tclgo-g), I arrange, and <7(pcyy-o, I bind. 



INDICATIVE. 



S. 1 

2 
3 

D. 1 
2 
3 

P. 1 
2 
3 



TE-Tay-fiaiy 

TE-Tdgdl, 
7E-TQ.KTG.L, 
TE-TuyflEdoVy 
TE-TdxOoV, 

TE-raxdov, 
TE'Tayfieda, 
TE-raxds, 
TE-ray/jEVOi si- 

GL(V), 



E-G^iyfiai, 
e-aipiytjai, 

S-GCpiyKTdl, 

£-G(ply/iEdov f 
E-G(ptyxOov, 
E-G(pcyxOov. 

£-G<j>Lyil£ddy 

£-G<piyxdz, 
£-G(f>iyu£voi el- 
gI(v), 



IMPERATIVE. 



TE-Td^O, 

TE-Tdxdu> 

TE-TdxOoV, 

TE-rdxOov, 

TE-Tdxde t 
re-TaxOuGdv, or 

TE-TUXduV, 



E-G(j)Ly^O, 

E-G(j)Lyx6o), 

E-Gdtyxdov, 
E-G<pLyx6ov, 

£-G<()Lyxde, 
k-G(plyxOcoGav, 
or £-G(?lyxfluv, 



Infinitive, TE-T&xOdt, £-G<piyx6cu 



Part., TE-ray-juivog. 



III. Verbs whose Characteristic is a T-sotjnd (t, 6, 6). 

Pure Characteristic 
r, 



Impure Charact. in pres. and , 
imperf £ more rarely oo. 1 



xfjevd-G), I deceive. (Future -aco.) (f>pd£.G), I say. 



Present, 

Imperfect, 

Perfect, 

Pluperf., 

Aorist 1, 

Future, 

Fut. Perf., 


active. 


MIDDLE. 


ACTIVE. 


MIDDLE. 


IpEVd-LD, 

E--[fjEvS-OV, 

£-\b£V-Kd, 

E-TpEV-KELV, 

E-TpEV-Gd, 

l}j£V-GG)y 


ipevd-ofiai, 

£-1p£v6-6fI7]V, 

E-'tiEVG-fXdL, 

E-TpEVG-jLLTJV, 

E-7p£V'Gdfl7]Vy 

IpEV-GOfldl, 

E-lpEV-GO/LLdl, 


(ppd^'Uy 

£-<j>pa£-ov, 

7T£-(ppd-Kd, 
E-TC£-(f)pa-K£lV, 

E-(j>pa-Gd, 

OpU-GtJ, 


(ppd^-ofidiy 
£-6pd^-6fir]v y 

7TE-(ppdG-fldl, 

k-TTE-CppUG-UTJV, 

£-(ppd-GU/J.7]V, 

(ppd-GOfldi, 

7TE-<ppd-GOjUdC. 


passive. 


Aorist 1, k-ipEVG-67]Vy 
Future 1, ipEVG-dr/GOfiaiy 


E-<j>pdG~df]V, 
(ppdG-drjGOfldl. 



324 VERBS. 



Inflection of the Perfect Middle or Passive. 





'S. 1 e-Tpevo-fiai, 


Imperative. 


Infinitive. 




2 e-fev-oai, 


e-ipev-Go, 


E-lpEV-oOaiy 




3 e-Tpeva-Tdi, 


k-'ipEv-odoy 




D. 1 e-ipevG-fisdoVy 




Tndic. < 


2 E-T/jeva-OoVy 


E-lpEV-OdoVy 
€-Xp£V-o6o)V, 


Participle. 


3 e-ipev<T-6ov, 


k-ipeva-jLLEVosy 77, ov. 




P. 1 h-\pevG'fieday 






2 s-Tpev-ade, 


E-ipev-adey 






3 k-ipevG-fiivoi eiGt(v)y 


h-ipEv-cduaaVy 
or E-ipEv-aduv, 





(B.) LIQUID VERBS. 

1. Liquid verbs, as already stated, are those whose char- 
acteristic is one of the liquids, k f \i, v, p. 

2. The present of these verbs, with the exception of a 
few whose stem-vowel is e, receives a strengthening, which 
consists either, 1. In the doubling of the characteristic X: 
or, 2. The insertion of the liquid v after the characteristic : 
or, 3. In lengthening the stem*vowel, as in the case of all 
those in -tvoj, -vvg>, vpa) : or, 4. Changing it into a diph- 
thong. Thus, 

1 . Doubling X ; as, ocpdX-X-G), Stem ocbaX. 

2. Inserting v after charac. ; as, rejU-.v-o), Stem re{i. 

3. Lengthening stem-vowel ; as, tcptv-G), afxyv-u), Stems 

ttpiv, afivv. 

4. Changing it to a diphthong; as, kteiv-g), <palv-(*), 

Stems ftrev, <pav. 
But fisv-co, vifi-G), are exceptions to this. 

3. Liquid verbs form the future active and middle, and 
the first aorist active and middle, without the tense-char- 
acteristic a : but the perfect active, on the other hand, with 
the usual tense-characteristic k ; as, present, a(f>dXXo) 
{stem ocpaX) : fuL act., oc/yaX-G) : fat, mid., otiaX-ovfiai : 1st 
aor. act., e-G(p7]X-a: 1st aor. mid., k-o$r\X.d\Lr(v : 1st perf 
act., e-o(baX-ica. 

4. The future perfect is wanting in liquid verbs, 

5. All the tenses after the imperfect are formed from the 



VERBS. 



325 



pure stem, but in such a manner that the vowel of the last 
syllable of the stem is lengthened in the first aorist active 
and middle ; as, 0<pdXX-G) (stem ocpaX) : fut., ocpaX-ti : 2d 
aor. pass., e-o<pdX-7\v : 1. perfect act., e-o<paX-tca: 1st aor. 
act, e-<j<pi]X-a : 1st aor mid., k-ocprjX-dfiTjv. 

6. In liquid verbs with an impure characteristic, we ob- 
tain the ground-form of the stem, not, as in the case of mute 
verbs, from the second aorist, but from the future, since only 
a few verbs of this class form a second aorist. 

7. All liquid verbs are divided into four classes, accord- 
ing to the radical vowel of the future : a, e, T, and v : and 
in the aorist a is lengthened into t\ : e into ei : I into I : 
and v into v. Thus, 

I. Class with a in the Future. 

o<f)&XX-(x), I deceive ; F. GipaX-ti, A. e-G^X-a. 

Kdfiv-G), I labor ; " fcdu-ovuai, " (wanting). 

retCfiaip-G), I limit; u retcfidp-ti, " e-TefCfiTjp.a. 

<pacv-(d, I show ; " (pdv-ti, u e~<t>r]v-a. 

II. Class with e in the Future. 

jtie:v.G), I remain § F. pev-ti, A. e-fieiv-a. 

ayyeXX-o, I announce ; " ayysX-ti, " ffyyeiX-a. 

reuv-G), I cut ; " refi-G), " (wanting). 

veu-g), I divide ; <{ veu-g), li e-VEtfM-a. 

KTEIV-G), I kill ; " KTEV-Qi, (i E-KTEIV-CL. 

Ifielp-G), I desire; " ipep-ti, " ifieip-a* 

III. Class with 1 in the Future. 

t£AA-6>, I pull; F. tIX-g), A.e.TiX-a. 

xptv-G), I separate; " tcpiv-ti, " e-fcpiv.a. 

IV. Class with v in the Future. 

avp-G), I drag ; F.Gvp-G), k.e-ovp-a. 
ofivv-o, I keep off; " afivv-ti, " rj-uvv-a. 

Remark 1. Of the verbs in the first class, the following in 
~aiva take 6, not 77, in the aorist : namely, 

iffXvaCvcjj I make lean ; Aor. iffxv&va, Iffxvavai. 
KepdaiWy I gain ; " ktcepddva, fcepddvat. 

KOiAaivu, I excavate s " etcoih&va, KQi&avai. 

Ee 



326 



VERBS. 



bpyatvu, I make angry ; Aor. upydva, bpyavai* 
TTerraLVG), I make ripe ; 44 enzTTdva, Tcenuvai. 
?Levicaivc), I make vjhite ; 44 kXevudva, hevKuvai. 

Remark 2. All verbs in -patvo) likewise make d, not n, in the 
aorist ; as, 

wepaivu, I finish; Aor. e7cepdva, nepdvai. 

fiapa'tvo, I waste ; 44 kpapdva, fiapdvat. 
Except Terpalvu, I bore, which makes kTerpnva, Terpijvai. 

Remark 3. All verbs in -lalvo likewise make a, not n, in the 
aorist ; as, 

ircalvo), I make fat; Aor. kmuva, niavcu. 
Except fitacvo), I pollute, which makes efilnva, ficTjvai, seldom 
e/Ltldva and fiLuvat. 

Remark 4. The verb cnfiaivu, I point out, has both an/i^vat 
(and this commonly with the Attics) and cnfxdvai. The verbs 
alpo), I raise, and aTiXo/iai, I leap, take also the formation in d ; 
as, apai, alaodai, which in the indicative, however, on account 
of the augment, passes over into n ; as, rjpa, yXdfirjv. (The 
second aorist yXS/irjv is not used in the indicative, and is other- 
wise also very rare.) 

8. The first perfect active of verbs having v as their 
characteristic ought properly to end in -ytca ; as, fie/tiay-tea, 
from fitalvG), I pollute, instead of fjLEfiiav-ica. But this form 
is found only in the later writers. Good writers endeavor 
to avoid this, either, 1 . By excluding the v, as in fcepdaivo, 
perf. KEKspdaKCL : or, 2. By employing the form of the sec- 
ond perfect in the sense of the first perfect, as in ktelvg), 
I kill ; second perfect ektovcl; or, 3. By not forming it at 
all : or, 4. By forming it from a new theme, as, for example, 
in fjLevto, perfect \iE\iEvr\Ka, from MENEO. 

9. The following three verbs, with the characteristic v, 
exclude the i>, not only in the perfect and pluperfect active, 
but also in the perfect and pluperfect middle or passive and 
first aorist passive ; as, 

Kpivcj, I separate ; Perf. KiapiKa; P. M. KeKpifiat; 1 A. P. e/cpfflnv. 
kXlvu, I bend; " kekTuku; " 44 /duXi/uat ; 44 44 eKXtdyv. 

nXvvu), I wash; " izinhvua ; " " irerrXv/iai ; " 44 kirXvOnv. 



VERBS. 



327 



10. Upon the formation of the perfect middle or passive, 
the following is worthy of remark : 

1 . When od follows a liquid, the a falls out ; as, 
TjyyeXOcu (instead of r\yyeX-odai) : rre^avdai (instead 
of necfrav-oOai). 

2. In verbs in -aivo) and -vvg), the v generally falls 
out before the terminations beginning with fi, and a is 
inserted to strengthen the syllable ; as, (fralv-oj, tte- 
(pa tr-fiat, Tre-cpd-o-jAeOa : OTjfiaivd), a earj fxaa \iai : ire- 
paivG), nenipaaiJiac : pacvcj, eppaofiai : Traxvw, Trend' 
Xyo\iai : fioXvvcj, \ie\i6Xvo\iai : XvjiaLvofiai, XeXvpaa^ 
pivot elal(v) : fiiaivG), jxejiLaofxac, But in some verbs 
of this kind, the v is assimilated to the following p ; 
as, Trapbi-vvG), I incite, nap&%v\i\Lai : alaxvvo), I shame, 
qoxvfifiai, infinitive rjaxvvOai. In a very few verbs, 
again, the v falls out, though no a is inserted, but then 
the vowel is lengthened ; as, rpaxvvco, I make rough, 
TS-rpdxv-fiat. The forms re-rpdxvo p,ai and re-rpd- 
Xvp>'fi>ai are, however, also employed. (Aristot., H. 
A., iv., 9. — Schdf., Schol Ap. Rhod., iii., 276. 

Remark. It needs hardly to be remarked, that in the ca3e of 
the other person-endings, which do not begin with fx, the v is 
not thrown out ; as, iri^ac-fiat, but TreQav-aai, Ttzyav-rai. So, 
again, €^7jpa(i-fj.ac y but e^rjpav-cai, k^rjpav-Tat : ^(T^v/x-//at, but 

7}<JX vv ~ <yat 'i VGX vv ~ raL ' 

11. In the second perfect, which is formed by only a 
few verbs, the short stem-vowel is lengthened before the 
ending a, as in the first aorist active, except in the verbs 
with e in the future, which change it into o ; as, (f>atv-G), 
first aorist e-cfrrjV'a : 2c? per/. TTe-<b7]v~a : aneip-G), I sow ; 
fut. onep-cj : 2d per/, e-onop-a. (Compare page 294, 
Remark 6.) 



328 



VERBS. 



\ 



RECAPITULATION AND MORE SPECIAL RULES FOR 
TENSE-FORMING. 

Active, 
imperfect active. 
The Imperfect Active of liquid verbs is formed from the 
verbal stem, as it appears in the present, by suffixing -ov, 
and prefixing the augment ; as, 

fcdfjbv-G)) Stem itafiv, Imperf. e-tcafiv-ov. 
(paiv-G), " <f)aiv, " e-<j>aiv-ov. 
rlXX-o), " nXX, " e-riXX-ov. 

first perfect active. 

1. The First Perfect Active is formed from the pure 
stem by suffixing -fca, and prefixing the reduplication, or the 
augment merely if the verb be not susceptible of redupli- 
cation ; as, 

tiXX-g), Pure Stem tiX, First Perf. re-riX-m. 
Ifjteip-G), " " l[iep, " " Lfiep-Ka. 
o<pdXX-G), " " o<f)aX, " " e-ocpaX-Ka. 

2. Verbs whose characteristic is a v, change this v, be- 
fore the k of the tense-ending, into y, according to the rules 
of euphony ; as, 

{itaiv-i*), P. Stem fiiav^ 1 Perf. (fie-fiiav-fta) —fie-ficay-ita. 
(patv-G), " " <j)av f " [ne-fyav-Ka) —TTs-fyay-Ka. 

3, But this perfect in -y/ca is only found in later writers, 
and earlier and good writers avoid it in various ways. 
(Consult page 326, § 8.) 

4, In some verbs a metathesis takes place in the perfect, 
and a transposition is made of a vowel and a liquid, the 
vowel being at the same time lengthened ; as, 

j8dAA-w, least; Pure Stem (3aX, I Perf. Act. Pe-6X7]-fca, 
K.dftv-G), I labor ; " '* nap, " " /ce-fC[iT)-ica, 
rmv-G), I cut ; '* " re/i, " " Te-Tfj,7j-tca. 
<jk£XX-gj, I dry ; " 6< ojceX, " " e-ofcXrj-Ka. 



VERBS. 



329 



5. The verbs icpcro), kXlvg), and nXvvo throw out v be- 
fore the tense-ending, and have for their first perfects active 
KE-tcpl-ica, KE-feXl-fca, ne-TrXv-fca. (Consult page 326, § 9.) 

FIRST PLUPERFECT ACTIVE. 

1. The First Pluperfect Active is formed from the 
pure stem by suffixing -keiv, and prefixing the reduplication 
with the augment before it, or the augment alone if the verb 
be not susceptible of reduplication. 

2. The same peculiarities and changes occur in forming 
this tense as in the case of the first perfect active. Thus, 
rlXX-o, Pure Stem tlX, 1 Pluperf. Act. e-te-tIX-kelv. 

ifiep, " " Ifiep-ttEiv. 

[uav, " " E-\iE-\iiay-KEiv. 

[3dX, " " E-6E-6Xrj'KEiv. 

KcLfl, " " E-KE-fCflTj-fCELV. 

fCpiVy " " E-KE-Kpt-KEIV . 



IflElp-G), 

/3dXX-G), 
Kapv-G), 

KpiV-G), 



« 
it 



SECOND PERFECT ACTIVE. 

1. The Second Perfect Active is formed from the 
pure stem by lengthening the stem-vowel, suffixing a to 
the stem, and prefixing the reduplication, or else the aug- 
ment merely if the verb be not susceptible of reduplication ; 
as, 

(pacv-o), Pure Stem <pav, 2d Perf. Act. rrE-cfrTjv-a. 
MXX-g>, " " MX, " " TE-OriX-a. 

2. But verbs which have e in the future change this s of 
the stem into o ; as, 

(TTTEipG), FUT. OTTEp G), PURE STEM OTCEp, 2d P. A. E-OTCOp-d. 

dep-w, " deo-ai, " " <5ep, " " di-dop-a. 

3. The second perfect active is formed by only a few of 
the liquid verbs. 

SECOND PLUPERFECT ACTIVE. 

1. The Second Pluperfect Active is formed from the 
pure stem by lengthening the stem-vowel, or by changing 

Ee2 



330 



VERBS. 



e into o in verbs that have e in the future, and then prefix- 
ing the reduplication with the augment before it, or else 
the augment merely if the verb do not admit of reduplica- 
tion ; as, 

(patv-G), Pure Stem (pa 2d Pluperf. Act. e-ne-cprjv-ecv. 
dep-co, " " dep, " e-de-dop-etv. 

FIRST AORIST ACTIVE. 

1. The First Aorist Active is formed from the pure 
stem, after its vowel has been lengthened, by suffixing the 
ending -a, and prefixing the augment. 

2. In lengthening the stem- vowel for the purpose of 
forming this tense, the vowel a is changed into rj, e into ei, 
I into I, and v into v, in accordance with the remarks that 
have already been made. (Page 325, § 7.) Thus, 

(bacv-G), Pure Stem (pav, 1 Aor. Act. s-(p7]v-a. 

fiev-G), " " p,ev, " " e-fieLV-a. 

Kptv-G), " 66 KplVy " " e-fcplv-a. 

diivv-G), " " d/ivv, " " rj-fivv-a. 

SECOND AORIST ACTIVE. 

1. The Second Aorist Active is formed from the pure 
stem by suffixing the ending -ov, and prefixing the augment. 

2. If the stem-vowel be e, this e is changed into a. But 
none of the lengthenings mentioned in the case of the first 
aorist, here occur, the penult of this tense, as a general 
rule, being short. Thus, 

(paw-Co, Pure Stem (pav, 2 Aor. Act. (e-<pav-ov.) 
j&UA-w, " " j&zA, « " hbaX-ov. 
oteXX-g), " " gtsX, " " LardX-ov. 

3. If, however, the stem that has s for its vowel be of 
more than one syllable, no change takes place of that e into 
a ; as, ayyeXX-u, I announce (pure stem dyyeX) : 2d aor. 
act. rjyyeX-ov, not rjyyaX-ov. 

Remark. As in the case of nlute verbs, so also here, there is 
no second aorist active to a verb, when the only distinction be- 



VERBS. 



331 



tvveen this and the imperfect would be in the quantity of the 
same vowel. Thus, there is no second aorist active to Kptvu, 
for the only difference between e/cpivoy, the imperfect, and itcpi- 
vov, the second aorist, would be in the quantity of the i. But 
the verb in such cases can have a second aorist passive, be- 
cause this tense has a different ending from the imperfect. 



1 . The Future Active is formed from the pure stem by- 
suffixing -ti. 

2. All liquid verbs, as already remarked, are divided into 
four classes, according to the radical vowel of the future, a, 
e, T, and y. 

3. In liquid verbs with an impure characteristic, the pure 
stem is found in the future itself, not, as in the case of mute 
verbs, in the second aorist ; since very few verbs of this 
class form a second aorist active and middle. 

4. The future active of liquid verbs is inflected like the 
present active of contracted verbs in eoy ; as, for example, 
like (ptX-G), for it comes itself by contraction from -eoco. 

<t>aiv~(o, Pure Stem cpav, 1st Fut. Act. cpdv-oj. 

TE[lV-0) 9 " " T£fl, " " re^-w. 

tcptv-G), " " tcplv, " " fCptV-G). 

afivv-G), " " auvv, " " apuv-co. 

Remark. These futures in -w come, as has just been re- 
marked, by contraction from -ecu. Thus, <pav-ecu, <j>av-£Q, 
<j>avti. And hence their resemblance, when inflected, to con- 
tracted verbs in eo. 



FUTURE ACTIVE. 



Inflection of Future in &. 



(pav-etg, 

(pav-elrov, 

<t>av-elTe, 



(pav-elrov, 
<pav-ovoi(v). 



D. 



P. (pav-ovfiev, 



Middle. 



IMPERFECT MIDDLE. 

The imperfect middle is formed from the verbal stem, as 



332 



VERBS. 



it appears in the present active, by suffixing -dfirjv, and pre- 
fixing the augment ; as, 

(palv-G), Stem (j>acv, Imperf. Mid. h.-$aiv-6\Lr\v. 

TEflV-CJ, " TBflV, " " k-Teiiv-ofirjv. 

tcpiv.G), " Kplv, " «« e-icpiv-6[i7]v. 

PERFECT MIDDLE. 

1. The Perfect Middle is formed from the pure stem 
by suffixing -pu, and prefixing the reduplication, or else 
the augment merely if the verb be not susceptible of the 
reduplication. 

2. Liquid verbs with a stem of one syllable, and e as the 
stem-vowel, change that e into a, as has already been re- 
marked. 

3. The three verbs Kpiv-G), kXiv-g), and ttXvv-g) drop the 
v before the tense-ending, as has already been remarked. 

4. In verbs in -aivo) and -vvcj, the v generally falls out 
before the terminations beginning with fi, and the letter a 
is inserted to strengthen the syllable. In some verbs, how- 
ever, of this kind, the v is assimilated to the following /z. 
Thus, 

1. Regular Formation. 
tAA-w, Pure Stem ti\ Perf. Mid. re-TiX-pac. 

ayy£?CX-a>> " " ayyel, " " fjyyel-fiai. 
Ifietp-o, " " lfiep t " " l-fiep-pai. 

2. Stem-vowel e changed to a. 
<jreA/l-w, Pure Stem (jreA, Perf. Mid. e-arraX-fiai. 
dtp-u, " " Sep, " " Se-dap-fiai. 

3. tcptv'G), icXiv-G), and ttXvv-cj. 
tcptv-u, Pure Stem KpTv, Perf. Mid. Ke-Kpt-{iac. 
f&tv-cj, " tl kTuVj 11 " Ke-K%Z-ftai. 
ttIvv-w, " " ir2,vv 9 iC " ire-irhv-jiiai. 

4. v thrown out and a inserted. 

(paiv-o, Pure St. 0av, Perf. M. ni^aa-fiai, for ni-^av-fiai. 
GTj/iatv-G), " " G7]fiav y " " ce-G7}fia(J-/Liai, " Gs-ffrj/nav-fiai. 



VERBS. 



333 



5. v assimilated to the following fi. 

fypalv-u, Pure St. ^pav, Perf. M. k&pafi-fiai, for kfnpm-fi&& 
napogvv-o, " " irapo^vvy " " Ttapu^vfi-fiat, irap&t-vv-fiai. 
alaxvv-Ui " " ai<Txvv } " " yaxvfi-ficu, " yffx vv ~f ia{ " 

PLUPERFECT MIDDLE. 

1. The Pluperfect Middle is formed from the pure 
stem by suffixing -ju^v, and prefixing the reduplication with 
the augment before it, or the augment alone if the verb be 
not susceptible of the reduplication. 

2. The same changes take place with regard to the 
stem-vowel, and also the dropping of v, or its assimilation 
with the following ft, as we have noted in the case of the 
perfect middle. Thus, 

t£AA-g), Pure Stem t£A, Plup. Mid. e-re-TiA-pjv. 
dyyeAA-G), " " dyyeA, " 4< TjyyeX-fiTjv. 
o<pdXX-G), 44 " a<f>aX, 44 44 e-G(f>dX'fi7jv. 
(fraiV'G), 44 " <f>dv, u 44 k.--n£-<bdo-\L7\v . 
oreAA-G), M 44 crreA, " 44 k-ordX^v. 
$-7ipalv-(o, 44 44 fypdv, 44 44 i-%r\pd\i-\Lr\v. 

FIRST AORIST MIDDLE. 

1. The First Aorist Middle is formed from the pure 
stem, after its vowel has been lengthened, by suffixing the 
ending -dju^v, and prefixing the augment. 

2. In lengthening the stem-vowel for the purpose of 
forming this tense, the same changes take place as in the 
case of the first aorist active, namely, a is changed into 77, 
e into el, 1 into £, and v into v. Thus, 

</huv.g), Pure Stem (j>av, 1 Aor. Mid. i-$r\v-d\Lr\v. 

fiev-G), 44 44 [lev, 44 4C k-\iuV'd\ir\v, 

tcpiv-G), " 44 KpXv y 44 44 e-KplV-dfJLTJV. 

afJLVV'<»), 44 44 dfJLVVy 44 44 Tj-flVV-dflTjV. 

SECOND AORIST MIDDLE. 

1. The Second Aorist Middle is formed from the pure 
stem by suffixing -ofirjv, and prefixing the augment. 



334 



VERBS* 



2. The same change in the stem-vowel takes place here 
as in the case of the second aorist active. 

3. Very few liquid verbs form this tense. 
dyyeXX-d), Pure Stem dyyeX, 2 Aor. Mid. rjyyeX.dfiTjV, 

FUTURE MIDDLE. 

1 . The Future Middle is formed from the pure stem by 
suffixing -ovftai. 

2. This termination -ovfiat is contracted from -Eoofiai, 
and is inflected like the present middle of contracted verbs 
in eu) ; as, for example, like faX-ovficu. 

3. Liquid verbs with a stem of one syllable, and e as the 
stem-vowel, do not change that e into a in forming the 
future middle, as they do in forming some other tenses. 





Pure Stem <pav, 


Fut. Mid. 




TlXX-G), 


tt 


" rlX, 




tt 


rlX-ovfiai. 


oreXX-(*), 


it 




tt 


a 


areX-ov[iat 


fcdflV-G), 


a 


" /cap, 


n 


a 




TEJJLV-G), 


tt 


" rep, 


it 


tt 


TEfl-OVflCU. 



Remark. These futures in -ovfiat come, as has already been 
remarked, by contraction from -eoofiai. Thus, (pav-eao/iai, <j>av- 
io/iai, <j>av-ovfzai. Hence their resemblance, when inflected, to 
contracted verbs in -£ofi<u, -ov/iai. 



Inflection of Future Middle in~ov[iai. 
S. (pav-ovficu, c^av-sl, <f)av-£iTac, 

D. (frav-ovfjLedov, (pav-eloSov, (frav-eZodov, 
P. (frav-ovfisda, (frav-eloOe, <pav-ovvrai. 

Passive, 
first aorist passive. 

1. The First Aorist Passive is formed from the pure 
stem by suffixing -Onv, and prefixing the augment. 

2. Liquid verbs with a stem of one syllable, and s as the 
stem-vowel, change that e into a, as has already been re- 
marked. 



VERBS. 



335 



3. The three verbs Kptv-G), kXlv-gj, and ttXvv-g), exclude 
the v of the stem before the tense-ending ~ftr\v. 

(palv-o), Pure Stem <f)dv, 1 Aor. Pass, e-cbdv-drjv. 



tcXX-g), 

gteXX-g), 

dyyiXX-G), 

KpiV-G), 

kXlv-g), 
ttXvv-g), 



tlX, 

<7T£/t, 

dyyek, 
repiv, 
kXIv, 
ttXvv, 



e.TiA-Orjv, 

£-OTdX-d7}V. 

7]yyeX-d7]v. 

E-Kpi'OljV. 

k-tcXt-67]v. 
k-nXv-O^v. 



SECOND AORIST PASSIVE. 



1. The Second Aorist Passive is formed from the pure 
stem by suffixing the ending -rjv, and prefixing the augment. 

2. The same change in the stem-vowel takes place here 
as in the case of the second aorist active. Thus, 



(palv-G), 

acfrdXX-G), 

areXX-d), 

ovp-G), 

tcXtv-G), 

ayyeXX-G), 



Pure Stem cpav, 
(j(pdX 9 
cteX, 
avp, 
kXZv, 
dyyeX, 



2 Aor. Pass. E-(pdv-7jv. 

" " £-0(pdX-7]V. 

" " e-ordX-'qv. 

" " e-ovp-7jv. 

" u e-KXiv-qv. 

u <t 7}yyeX-7]v, 



FIRST FUTURE PASSIVE. 

1. The First Future Passive is formed from the pure 
stem by suffixing the ending 'drjaojiiai. 

2. Liquid verbs with a stem of one syllable, and e as the 
stem-vowel, change that e into a, as already remarked. 

3. The three verbs Kpcv-G), kXiv-g), and ttXvv-g), drop v 
before the tense. ending. 

<paiv-G) 9 Pure Stem <pdv 9 1 Fut. Mid. (pav-drjoofiai,. 
o(j)dXX-G) 9 u " G(f>aX 9 " M G<baX-dr\ao\iai. 
oreXX-G), " " areX, " " OTaX-dr\oojiaL. 
dyyeXX-G), " " dyyeX, " M dyyeXdrjOoiACu. 
IfieLp-w, w " Ifiep, " " i\x£p.Qr\Go\Lai* 



336 



VERBS. 



SECOND FUTURE PASSIVE. 

1. The Second Future Passive is formed from the 
short stem by suffixing the ending -rjoofjiat. 

2. The same change takes place in the stem- vowel as in 
the case of the second aorist active. Thus, 

<balv-G), Pure Stem <pav, 2 Fut. Pass, (pav-rjoofiai. 

ore A a- a), " " oteX, '* u ardX-Tjaonac. 
dyyeAA-a), " u ayyeh, " " ayyeX-TjGOfiai. 
avp-o), " " ovp, " u ovp-Tjaofxai. 



VERBS. 



337 



CONDENSED PARADIGMS OF THE LIQUID VERBS. 
ayyeXk-ix), I announce. 



Pres. 
Imperf. 

Perf. 1. 
Plup. 1. 

Future 



Aor. 1. 
A or. 2. 



Indic. dyy&A-o, 
Indic. ijyyehA-ov, 

Indic. jjyyeh-ica, S 
Indic. fiyyiXrK&v, i 



Ind 



ACTIVE. 
Imper uyyeXk-e : Opt. dyy£AA-oijj,t : 
Sub j. dyy£AA-cj . Inf. dyyfAA-Eiv : 
Part. uyyEA/i-wv. 
Imper. %yy£A-K£ : Opt. rjyyEA-KOLjii : 
Subj. 7jyyeA-KCj : Infin. rjyyeA-Ke- 
vat : Part. rjyyeA-KUQ. 

Op. dyyeA-oLfii, or dyyeA-oCrjv 



I dyyeA-£), 
" 2 dyyEA-nq, 
" 3 ayye/l-ei, 

" D. 2 ayyevi-etrov, 
" 3 (lyyEA-EiTov, 

" P. 1 uyyeA-ov{j.ev, 
" 2 dyyeA-elre, 

Fut. Inf. dyyeA-ttp 
Indic. ijyyEiX-a : Imper. dyyetX-ov : Opt. dyyELA-aijiL 

Subj. ayy££/l-a) : Inf. dyy£iA-ai : Part. dyyetA-ag. 
Indic. fjyyeA-ov : Imper. dyyeA-e : Opt. dyyek-oifiL : Subj 

uyyeA-u : Inf. dyyEA-Etv : Part. dyy£A-6v, -ovgci, -6v. 



dyysA- occ, 
dyyEA-ol, 
dyyEA-otTov, 

UyyEA-OLTTJV, 

dyyEA-oijUEv, 
dyy£?i-olT£ t 
ayyEA-olsv, 
Part. dyyEA-tiv, 



dyyE?i-oi7}£, 
' dyyEA-OLT], 
' ,l dyy£/i-oLriTov. 
" dyy£?i-0L7]T7jv. 
" dyye?i-ol7}fi£v, 

" dyyEA-OLTJTE, 

" ayyfA-oiey. 
-ovoa, -ovv. 



Pres. 
Imperf. 



Perfect 



Indic. ayyeTCk 
Indic. 7jyy£?iA 

In 



rs. 



D. 



ojiat, 

OjlTjV, 
DICATIV 

fiat, 
■Gat, 
■rat, 



MIDDLE. 
Imper. dyyeAA-ov : Opt. dyy£?iA-ol- 
firjv : Subj. uyy^A-cdjiai : Inf. ay- 
y£A\-£o6ai : Part. dyy£AA-6fi£voq, 



fjyyEA- 
fjyyEA- 
fjyyEA- 
rjyyEA- 
7jyye%- 
fjyyEA- 
f)yy£A- 
f]yy£A-d£, 
TjyyEA-fiEVOL eIgl{v), 



,~flEd0V, 

-dov, 
.-[lEda, 



Imperative. 

fjyyEA- go, 
rjyyEA-dto, 

7jyy£A-0ov, 
■fjyyiA-dcov, 

7jyy£A-d£, 
r)yy£A-0G)oav, 
or -6g)v, 



Infinitive. 
7jyy£?i-6ai. 

Participle. 
fjyy£A-ji£voq. 

Subjunctive. 
rjyyEk-jiEvoq cj. 

Optative. 
rjyyEA-jiEvog drjv 



Aor. 1. 



Aor. 2. 



Indic. fjyyEik-djirjv : Lmper. dyy£LA-at : Opt. dyyELA-ai- 
[irjv : Subj. dyyEiA-ujiai : Infin. dyyuA-aaQai : Part 
dyy£iA-d\iEVQQ. 

Indic. fjyy£%-6[irjv : Imper. dyyEA-ov : Opt. dyy£?i-o[ l urjv : 
Subj. dyyE?i-toficu : Infin. dyyEA-EoQai : Part. dyysA- 

OflEVOg. 



Aor 1. 
Fut. 1. 
Aor. 2. 
Fut. 2. 



PASSIVE. 

Indic. TjyyEk-Qrjv : Imper. dyy£A-d?jri : Opt. dyyEA-ddrjv 
Subj. dyysA-dcj : Inf. dyyEk-Qrjvai : Part. dyyEA-OEtg. 
Indic. dyy£A-dr}oo/Lcat : Opt. dyy£A-dr)GQLurjv : Inf. ayyeZ- 
. dfjGEGdat : Part. dyyE7\,-QrjGoiiEvoq. 

Indic. fjyyEl-rjv : Imper. dyyEA-rjdi : Opt. dyy£l-£trjv 

Subj. ayye/l-w : Inf. dyyEA-fjvai : Part. dyy£A-dg. 
Indic. dyyeA-TjGOfiaL, &c , like the first future passive. 

: ~ 



VERBS. 



SHORTER PARADIGMS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE 
STEM-VOWEL OF THE FUTURE. 

I. With a in the Future. 



G(j)d?iXG) y I delude. (patvcj, I show ; mid. I appear. 



• 

Present, 
Imperfect, 
Perfect 1, 
Plup. 1, 
Perfect 2, 
Plup. 2, 

AORIST 1, 

Future, 


ACTIVE. 


MIDDLE. | ACTIVE. 


MTDDLE. 


GtydW-u, 

e-G(t>a?^-ov, 

e-G<l>(i? v -K,a, 

E-G<j>d%-K£lV, 


G<bd'k'k-ouai, 

F-G(pa%X-6{i7]v, 

£-G(pa?i-/LiaL, 

E-GfydX-flVV, 


(palv-tj, 

E-(j)0.lV-OV t 

{k-ire-(pdy-K£i.v), 

7T£-(j>7]V-a, 
(£-Tre-(j)7}V-£lv), 

E-drjv-a, 
(pav-u, 


tpaiv-uficu, 

E-(j)aiV-6fl7jV, 

TTE-cpaa-fiaiy 

£-7T€-(f>dG-jUnV, 






f 

e-G(j)7]?u-a, 
GtyaX-u, 


( Wanting), 
( Wanting), 


» 

k-(j)7jv-dfinv y 
(j>nv-ovfiat. 


passive. 


AORIST 1, 

Aorist 2, 
Future I, 
Future 2, 


e-GtyuX-drjv, 

£-G(pU?L-7}V, 

G^ak-driGOfiaty 
G^>dX-7jGOfiai, 


k-tydv-dnv, 
k-fyav-nVj 
(jxzv-drjGOfiaiy 
<f>av-rjGOfiai. 



Inflection of the Perfect Middle or Passive of (paw-M, I 
show : $;7]paiv-G), I dry : and reiv-G), I stretch. 



Ind. < 



D 



rS. 1 
2 
3 
1 
2 
3 

P. 1 
2 
3 



TE-yaG-fzai, 

TTE-QaV-GCU, 

TZE-fyav-Tai, 

7T£-(pdG-jLl£d0V, 

TTE-tyav-dov, 
TTE-cpav-dov, 

TTC-QdG-flEda, 

KE-^av-de, 

TTE-fyCLG-fXEVOl ElGL(v), 



s-Zr/pajLi-fiai, 

e-grjpav-oat, 

k-^pav-rai, 

£-%ypd{i-{i£dov, 

h-^rjpav-dov, 

E-grjpav-dov, 

E-Zripap-fiEda, 

k-^pav-ds, 

E-^npa/u-jUEVot eigl(v), 



TE-ra- 

TE-Td- 

ri-rd- 

TE-TU- 

TE-ra- 
TE-ra- 
re-ra- 
TE-ra- 
TE-ra- 



■fiat, 
■Gai, 
■rat, 

■JUE0OV, 

gOov, 

■gOov, 

(isfta, 

Gde, 

vrai, 



Imp. < 



S. 2 
3 

D. 2 
3 

P. 2 
3 



(7TE-<f>av-G0), 

7r£-(f)dv-d(o, 
TTE-tyav-dov, 

TTE-tydv-BuV, 

TTE-tfiav-Oe, 
nE-^dv-dtdGav or 



(k-fypav-Go), 

E-Znpdv-do), 

E-^rjpav-Oov, 

k-gnpdv-dov, 

E-gr/pav-OE, 

£-£jnpdv-6uGav or 



TE^rd-GO, 
TE-rd-Gdo), 
rs-ra-Gdov, 
TE-rd-GOuVf 
TE-ra-GdSy 
re-rd-GdcjGav 
or -g6(dv. 



Infinitive, 
Partic, 



TTE-tydv-dai, 

TVE-lpaG-jUEVOg, 



k-fypdv-dai, 

£-%ripa\L-UL£VOQ, 



re-Tu-odai, 
re-Td-fxivog. 



VERB3. 



339 



II. With e in the Future. 



^Z/iiEip-G) (Ion. and poet.), I desire, and areXX-io, I send. 



Presknt, 
Imperfect, 
Perfect I, 
Pluperf. 1, 
Perfect 2, 
Pluperf. 2, 
Aorist 1, 
Future, 


ACTIVE. 


MIDDLE. 


ACTIVE. 


middle. 


'ifielp-oj, 
l/Lteip ov, 
1/j.ep-Ka, 

i/LLFp-KELV* 


l/2£lp-0{iat, 

Ifieip-dfiTjV, 

Ifiep-iiat, 

Ifiep-fiTjv, 


GTEAA-G), 
E-GTEAA-OV, 

E-cra?,-Ka } 

k-GT&A-KELV, 


GTEAA-O/iaij 
E-GTE?Ji-6jLL7)V, 
E-GTa?i-fJ,ai y 
E-GTd},-fjL7jV, 




> 


1 

h-GTEil-a, 
gtea-lj, 


J 


> 

Ifieip-a, 
ijuep-ti, 


l/uecp-dfjiijv, 
ifiEp-ov/Liai, 


> 

E-GTElA-dfirjVj 
GTEA-OVjLiai. 


PASSIVE. 


Aorist 1, 
Future 1, 


L/iep-drjVf 
Lfiep-dr/GO/j.at, 


£-GTUA-07]V, \E-GTaX-7jV. 

Gra7.-QriGoiLai,\Gia}\,-riGO\iai. 



Remark. The inflection of the perfect middle or passive is 
like that of fiyyEA-^ai. 



III. With I and v in the Future. 
(A.) r/AA-w, I pull: ovp-6), I draw : and (jloXvv-g), I soil. 



Present, 

Perfect, 

Future, 

Aorist 1, 

Aorist 1 Pass., 
Future 1 Pass., 


TLAA-CJ, 

TLAA-Ofiat, 

TE-TlA- KCL) 

TE-TlA-fXCLL, 

TIA-U, 

TtA-OVfiat, 

E-TLA-a, 

k-rlA-dfirjv, 

E-TL%-drjV, 

TiA-OrjGO/Liat, 


GVp-G), 

GVp-OjLiaL, 

GE-GVp-Kd, 

GE-GVp-fJ-dl, 

GVp-6), 

GVp-OVftdL, 

E-Gvp-a, 

£-GVp-dfl7]V, 

E-Gvp-6rjv, 
Gvp-Sr/GOfiac, 


[XOAVV-CO, 

/LLO?iVV-OIUCll, 

(/bLE-fZOAVy-Ka), 

jUE-jUO?iVG-/Liai, 

[jLO?\,VV-C), 

fioAvv-ovfiai, 

k-fio/ivv-a, 

£-{jLO/\,vv-d(ir}v, 

E-fioAvv-Orjv, 

\LOAvv-Qi]Goiiai. 


Aor. 2 and Fut. 2 Passive, k-Gvp-r\v : Gvp-^ao/uai. 



Remark. The inflection of the perfect middle or passive, *re- 
TiA-jiaL, GE-Gvp-fiai, is like that of rjyysA-fiai : that of /ze-/li6avg- 
juai, like that of TVE-^aG-fiai : and that of yGxv^ai (from aiGxvv-u, 
I shame), like that of k-^pafi-fiai. 



(B.) kXiv-(*), I lend: nXvv-G), I wash : with v falling out. 





ACTIVE. 


MIDDLE. 


active. 


middle. 


Present, 
Perfect, 
Aorist 1, 
Future, 


KE-KAl-Ka, 
E-KAlV-a, 

k'aiv-6), 


K?dv-0/LLai, 
K£-KAl-[J,aii 
E-KAlv-d\lT}Vy 

K/av-ovfiai, 


7T?iVV-G), 
7TE-7V?iV-Ka, 
E-TTAVV-d, 
7TAVV-CO, 


TTE-lZAV-fjLCLLi 

E-7T?iVV-d/U1]U, 

7T?,VV-OVfifJC. 


PASSIVE. 


Aor. 1, k-KAt-drjv. Fut. 1, KAl-drjGOfxaL. 
Aor. 2, e-kaiv-tiv. Fut. 2, KALv-ijGOfiai. 


E-TTAV-drjV . TCAV-6t)GO[A(11. 



340 VERBS. 

Remark. The inflection of the perfect middle or passive, k£» 
icli-fiat, and Tre-TrXv-fiat, is like that of re-ru-fiac, and agrees with 
that of pure verbs. 



SPECIAL PECULIARITIES IN THE FORMATION OF SEV- 
ERAL VERBS, BOTH PURE AND IMPURE. 

1. Very many active verbs have the future in the middle form ; 
as, cikovu, I hear ; fut. atcovGOjuai : aorist tjkovgcl : anavrdu), I meet ; 
fut. di:avri]Go\iai : aorist uftTjVTTjGa : diroTiavu, I enjoy ; fut. anoXai)' 
cofiac : aorist direXavGa, &c. 

2. The following two verbs in -do) or -aiu> take av in the future 
and aorist : namely, 

naiu, Attic Kau (without contraction), I burn ; fut. kclvgu : 
aorist, enavca : perf. act. ni-nav-na, : perf. mid. or pass. neKav- 
fiat : 1st aor. pass. EKavBrjv. 

Kka'iu, Attic kXuo) (without contraction), I weep ; fut. Kkavou : 
aorist, enXavaa, &c. 

3. The following five verbs in -ew, namely, deu, veu, ttTieu, 7tveu, 
and pea), take ev in the future and aorist. In addition to which, it 
should be observed that the first four, together with the customary 
form of the future middle in -Gofiai, have also another in -Govfiat. 
This circumflexed form of the future is called the Doric Future. 
And, moreover, besides the form just mentioned, the verbs nhaiu, 
nalfo, ttlittg), and (pevyu, also have this form. Thus, 

tied), I run ; future d-evoovfiai and tievGO/iai. 

veu, I swim ; future vevGov/Ltat and vevaofiac : first aorist ivevaa. 

irXeo, I sail ; future TrTievGovfiat and TrXevGo/Ltat : first aorist 

hiz'kevaa : perf. mid. or pass. 'Keir'kevaiiat : first aorist pass. 

kirXevGd^v. 

peo), I flow ; future pevGojuai, : first aorist efipevGa. Instead of 

these forms, however, the Attics use fut. favrjcofiat : aorist 

epfavrjv, and perf. eppvrjKa. 
X^co, I pour, differs from the foregoing ; fut. xe<*> ' aorist ex ea • 

perfect Kexvua : fut. mid. x^o/iat : 1st aor. mid. exedfiriv : perf. 

mid. or pass. Kexvfiai : 1st aor. pass, exvdnv. 
kXcll-u, Attic tikau (without contraction), 1 weep ; fut. mid. i<Xav- 

covfiai and K/iavGOfiat : 1st aor. act. liikavGa. 
<j>evy-u, I flee ; fut. mid. (j>ev^ovfiaL and <j>ev$;ojucu : 2d aor. act. 

e(f)V-yov : perf. ne^evya. 
tzat^-u, I joke, 1 sport ; fut. mid. Trai^ov/Liat and Tral^ofzai : 1st aor. 

act. enaiGa : perf mid. or pass. TziiraLGiiaL. 



VERBS. 



341 



itItct-o, I fall (stem ttet) : fut. mid. neaovfiai. 

irvvdavouat,, I ask, I inquire : fut. tzevoovucll, commonly iZEvaouat. 

4. The following pure verbs, and impure ones which follow the 
analogy of pure verbs in the formation of their tenses by taking an 
e as a characteristic, have a distinct form for the perfect subjunc- 
tive and optative middle or passive : 

KTa-ouat, I acquire ; perf. KEKTnuai, I possess ; subj. KEKT&fiai, y, 

yrat : opt. KEKTyunv, fceKryo, KEKryro : or, kektuuvv, &o, (pro. 
fiiuvrjCFKco (stem [iva), I remind. 

tcaMo), I call ; perf. mid. or pass. KEKXyfiac, I am called ; pluperf 
ekekXtjutiv : opt. KEK?.yunv, rjo, yro. 

5. Two mute verbs take the future form in -ovfiai, without cr, of 
liquid verbs. 

fxdxofiat, I fight; fut. fiaxovjiat (arising out of the Ionic fiax-EGO- 
uat). 

gfr/iaL, I sit ( f EA£2) : fut. (id-ovuai) ttadedovfLai. 

6. The following three verbs take the future perfect in another 
form as well as in the usual one : 

-&v7]GKCd, I die ; third fut. reOvrj^u {old Attic) and redvrj^o/xat (later 
Attic). 

kTluZg), I clang ; third fut. KSKldy^o (old Attic) and KE\ikay%ouai 
(later Attic). 

larnui, 1 place ; third fut. iarij^G) (old Attic) and karrj^ouaL (later 
Attic). 



SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. 

1. Some few verbs omit the stem- vowel in certain forms when it 
stands between two consonants. This omission of the vowel is 
called Syncope. Thus, 

kyetpcj, I awaken; 1st aor. act. regularly rjyetpa: 1st perf. eyrj- 
yepna : 2d perf. kypijyopa, I awake ; 2d pluperf. eypnyopeiv, I 
awoke ; 2d aor. mid. rjypofinv, I awoke. 

7TET0UCLL) I fly ; fut. 7tT7)oo[j,ai : 2d aor. mid. etttouvv : inf. izriodai. 

Epxouat, I go ; 2d aor. act. r/Wov : inf. eXOelv, &c. 

2. This syncope takes place most frequently after reduplication. 
Thus, 

ytyvouai, I become, instead of yi-yhofiai (stem ysvcj). 

filuvcj, I remain, " " uc-uevo). 

7rl7TT0), I fall, " " tcl-7t£tg) (stem ttetd). 

3. By metathesis we understand the transposition of a vowel and 

Ff 2 



f 



342 VERBS. 

a liquid ; and this is done partly to produce a more pleasing sound, 
partly by the poets, to avoid the restraints of quantity. 

4. The tenses most frequently affected by metathesis are the 
perfect, pluperfect, first aorist passive, and first future passive, but the 
second aorist seldom. 

5. The following verbs most commonly experience metathesis j 
/?aA/U), / throw ; fut. /?a/U) : 2d aor. act. eSakov (BAA) : perfect 

act. peSXnica : perfi mid. or pass. jieSlrjfxai : first aorist pass. 

k6'kr)dr}v : fut. pass. /SXnd^ao/uaL : fut. perfi ftedkyGO/uai. 
da/zdo, more commonly dap,a&, I tame (A AM) : fut. dafidao) : 1st 

aor. act. eddfidaa : perfect SedjLtrjKa : perfi mid. or pass. dedfLn- 

uac : 1st aor. pass, edfxijdnv : 2d aor. pass. t&ap,r\v. 
deuo), I build (mostly poetic and Ionic) : 1st aor. act. edeiua : 1st 

aor. mid. edeiftdpnv (AME) : perfect didfirjua : perfi. mid. or pass. 

ded/LLTjfiaL. 

tivrjCKG), 1 die; 2d aor. act. eddvov : perfect redvtjKa, 
tiptJGKC), I spring ; 2d aorist act. eOopov. 

KaXeo, I call (poetic kikX^gku, like •frvrjanG)) : fut. naTifi : perfi 

KenTinna. 

Ktifivto, 1 labor ; 2d aor. act. eKdfiov : perfi KeKfinKa. 
GKeXTiG), I dry, also cr/ce^eo) : perfect lcKkr\Ka : fut. mid. CK2,7jvo{iai. 
Ttpvcj, I cut ; 2d aor. act. ere/uov : perfect rerjLLrjKa. 
T?iT/aop,aL, I will endure ; 2d aor. erTirjv : perfect TerlnKa (stem 
TAA). 

6 When the verbal stem consists of two syllables, the vowel, 
transposed by metathesis, blends into one sound along with the one 
coming after ; as, 

nepuvvvfiL (poetic Kepao), I mix ; fiat. act. Kspdco : perfi. mid. or 
pass. Ki-Kpu-fiat, instead of na-apea-fiai : 1st aor. pass, e-tcpa- 
dnv. 

7r in pdc kg), I sell (instead of TrnrepaGKo, TTtTrpedaKo), from irepdo 

(and hence fut. Trepucu) : perfi. act. TCFirpuna : perfi. mid. or pass. 

ireTrpdjLiai : 1st aor. pass, enpadnv : fut. perfi. ireTTpdcro[iai. 
cropevvvfiL, I spread. Secondary form arpuvvv^t (instead of 

GTpeo-vvvfit) : fut. crpuoG) : 1st aor. act. ecrptdoa: perfi. mid. 

or pass. larpLdfiai : 1st aor. pass, kcrpudnv. 
Treldfa, 1 approach (tragic ireldOu, ir?iddG)) : 1st aor. pass. eTrelda* 

6nv (poetic, Attic, knTidBrjv) : 2d aor. mid., Attic, knldfinv: 

perfi mid. or pass. TreirTiafiai. 

We have an instance of metathesis even in the stem, in the 
verb S-pdrTio, or ftpdaou, I disquiet (arising from Tapdrrtj, rpadr- 
tg)), an Attic secondary form of rapdcoo : 1st aor. act. eOpn^a. 



VERBS. 



343 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 

1. We call every verb irregular which has a tense- 
formation deviating from the stem of the present, as well 
as every one which does not take the customary personal 
endings. Still, we reckon all those which, in the present, 
undergo one of the changes mentioned under the respective 
heads of M Strengthening of the Stem" (p. 292), and 44 Change 
of the Stem-vowel" (p. 293), among the regular verbs. 

2. All anomalies fall under two general heads, namely, 

(A.) Anomalies in the stem. 
(B.) Anomalies in the personal endings. 
Verbs, moreover, which are irregular in the personal 
endings, for example, the verbs in -fii, are likewise irregu- 
lar in the stem. 

3. A particular anomaly consists in this, that many verbs 
have made up their tense-formation out of verbs having dif- 
ferent roots, which are connected together only by their 
signification ; as, 0£OG), I bear ; olog), I shall bear ; ijveyfcov, 
I bore. 

Remark. All forms assumed merely for the sake of the forma- 
tion are denoted by capital letters. "Mid." denotes that the 
verb forms the future and aorist middle. " D. M." (i. e., depo- 
nent middle) and " D. P." (i. e., deponent passive) signify that 
a verb has not the active form ; and such a verb is called de- 
ponent middle, if it forms its aorist with a middle form ; and 
deponent passive, if it forms it with a passive form. When 
stands in a parenthesis, it denotes that the preceding form fol- 
lows the analogy of a conjugation in -pi, which is hereafter to 
be discussed. 

(A.) Anomalous Verbs in ft. 
I. Verbs whose Pure Stem is strengthened in the Present 
and Imperfect by the insertion of a v before the ending. 

Preliminary Remark. Balvu has the stem-vowel a length- 
ened into at, and kTiavvo into av. 
I. Balvo), I walk, I go (BA) ; fut. mid. fifiaofiai, : per/, act. fiebrjua : 



344 



VERBS, 



2d aor. act. e6nv (pc, p. 374). Pass, in compounds ; as, avaSaivofiai, 

avaBedufxac, rrapaSeCdfiai, dvedadnv, irapedaOnv. 

Remark. The first aorist active ednaa, in a transitive sense, 
to cause to go, occurs only in poetic and Ionic, as well as late 
writers. 

2. Avvtj, I enter. The unstrengthened verb Svcj (Karadvo) has in 
the present, as also the future dvca>, and the first aorist active idvaa, 
the transitive meaning to wrap up, to sink: 1st aor. pass, edvdnv.— 
But the middle voice dvofiat, dsdvfiat,, dvaojuac, bdvodfinv, signifies to 
envelop or clothe one's self, to put on one, &c. The perf. act. didvica., 
and 2d aor. act. kdvv, have also this latter signification. 

3. 'EAavvw, I drive ; fut. eTiuctg) : Attic eTiC), dg, a ; infin. hXav (page 
282) : 1st aor. act. %?iaoa : perf act. ekrfkdKa : perf. mid. or pass. 
klr}ld[iaL : 1st aor. pass. jjX&dqv. (Short characteristic vowel d re- 
tained in the formation of the tenses, contrary to rule (page 282). 

4. Utvcj, I drink ; fut. Trcofiai : 2d aor. act. Zirtov : 2d aor. imper. 
nidi, Attic for me, which last is poetic : 2d aor. infin. wielv : part. 
tu6v (110) : perf. izenuKa : perf. mid. or pass, ttetto/icll : 1st aor. pass, 
eirodnv. Later writers use the future iriovfiai, which, however, oc- 
curs in 2d plur. (luelode), in Xenophon also. (Symp., x., 4, 7.) 

5. Tew, I expiate, I pay ; fut. Tcao : aorist erica : perfect Terctca : 
perf mid. or pass. Tertafiat: 1st aor. pass, kricrdnv : mid. rlvo/iat, 1 
take vengeance on, I punish, Tiaojaat, erlodfinv. 

6. $6uvg), I anticipate ; fut. tyOijcro/iat, more rarely (pddau : 1st aor. 
act. ecpddaa : 2d aor. act. etydnv : 2d aor. mid. e(f>6d/2nv (juc, p. 373). 

7. $6ivG) (poetic, seldom used in prose, and then only in the pres- 
ent), I waste away (seldom, I destroy or consume); fut. (f>6iocj : 1st 
aor. act. etydicra : fut. mid. (pdlcofiat : perf. mid. or pass, e^fftjuai : plu- 
perf. and 2d aor. e^dt/nnv : subj. (j)6icjfiac : opt. (pdifinv, <pdlro : imperat. 
Qdicdo : infin. (pdtcdai : part, (pdifievoc. 

With these are ranked three verbs whose pure stem ends in a 
consonant. 

Aukvg), I bite ; 2d aor. act. edatcov : fut. d^ofiat : perf. Sedn^a : 
perf. mid. or pass, dednyfiat, : 1st aor. pass. e6rjx^V v ' 

Kdfivo), I exert myself I weary myself I am weary, I work hard; 
2d aor. act. etcu/Liov : fut. mid. Kafiovfiai : perf. KetcfinKa (page 
342.) 

Tsfivu, I cut, I divide, I lay waste ; fut. Teuti : 2d aor. act. ereftov : 
perfect TET/xnfca : perf mid. or pass, rerfinfiai : 1st aorist pass. 
erfirjOnv : fut. perf. Tzrp.r]Gop,ai. — Mid. 



VERBS. 



345 



II. Verbs whose Pure Stem is strengthened, in the Present 
and Imperfect, by the insertion of the syllable ve before the 
ending. 

t. Bu-v£-(o, I fill up, I stop up; fut. (3vao) : 1st aor. act. eCvaa : perf. 
mid. or pass. (3£6vapac : and 1st aor. puss, tdvodijv. 

1. 'A<f>t>c-ve-ofiaL, Icome (the simple Uviofiac seldom occurs in prose ; 
the compound is generally employed in its stead) ; fat. dipi^ofiat : 2d 
aor. mid. d(j>ltc6[ir}v : 2d aor. inf. mid. d(j>iKea6at : perf. dtyiyfiac : perf. 
infin. dtylxv'ai : pluperf d(pLyfn]v, a<plt;o, &c. 

3. 'Tntcx-ve-opai, I promise ; 2d aor. vrreGX-ofinv : 2d aor. impcr. 
vtzo-gxov : but fat. virooxyGouai : perf. vitioxripai. So, d/j.7TiGxvov/LiaL 
or ufnrFxofiat, I wear, I have on (from d/mrex *, I wrap round; fut. dfi- 
(j>e^o) : 2d aor. act. rjfjLntGxov, dfimoxeiv) : fut. mid. dfiyet-ofiaL : 2d aor. 
mid. qfnuoxofinv and y/LLireaxofinv. 

4. Kv-ve-o, I kiss ; fut. kvgu : 1st aor. act. eKvaa. But npoGKvveci, 
I kiss the hand to, I do obeisance to ; fut. irpoGKyvijau : 1st aor. act. 
TcpoeeKvvrjoa (poetic, also, irpooeavaa : infin. npocKvoai). 

III. Verbs whose Pure Stem is strengthened, in the Present 
and Imperfect, by the insertion of the syllable av, more 
rarely atv, before the ending. 

All verbs of this kind form their tenses from a threefold stem — 
the present and imperfect from a strengthened one — the second 
aorist from the pure one — the future, the perfect, and pluperfect 
from a third, which consists of the pure stem, and an annexed e, 
which, in inflection, becomes n. 

(A.) av or aiv affixed without any change. 

1. AiGd-dv-o/Ltat, I perceive, I observe (more rarely aladofzat) : 2d aor. 
mid. rjoddfinv, alodeodaL : perf. yadrjfiai : fut. atGdrjoofiai. 

2. 'Afiapr-dv-u, I err ; 2d aor. act. r/fiaprov : fut. dfiaprijuofiai : perf. 
act. TjfidpTrjKa. 

3. 'ATrexO-dv-ojuai, I become hated, I am hateful; 2d aor. mid. drrnx- 
66finv : fut. d7zex6r)GO[iai : perf. mid. or pass. drrrixQiliLai, I am hated. 

4. Av%-dv-cd, I increase, I augment; fut. av^rjeo : 1st aor. act. 
rjv^naa : perf. act. rjv^nKa. — -Mid. and pass., I grow : perf. nvgnfiai : fut. 
avt-r/GOfiaL : 1st aor. nv^rjdrjv. 

5. BTiacT-dv-cj, I sprout : 2d aor. act. eBhacrov : fut. piaaTrjoo : 
perf. act. eS?iaaTt]Ka and /3e6?idoT7jKa. 

6. &apd-dv-u, I sleep; 2d aor. act. eSapOov : fut. pass, dapdrjoofiai : 
perf. act. deddpdrjKa. 



346 



VERBS. 



7. K7.ayy-Q.v-o (collateral form of /cAd£cj), said especially of hounds, 

I give tongue; fut. KAdy^u (KEKAuy^ofiai, Aristoph., Vcsp., 930) : 1st 
aor. act. EKAay^a : 2d aor. act. tuAayov : per/. Kenhayya (earlier form 
nenAiiya). 

8. 'O/ucO'dv-co, I glide ; 2d aor. act. o)?ua6ov : fut. b?uo6^ao) : per/, 
act. uMcdr/Ka 

9 'Oayp-alv-o/iai, I smell ; 2d aor. mid. G)C(}>p6ur}v : fut. bo(pprjco[iai. 
(Pres. oGopdodat was a rare Attic form : the aorists oo§pnc>d\Liriv and 
ooQpavdrjvat were later forms ) 

10. 'OqAlck-uv-o, I am liable, I deserve (the double strengthening, 
tan and av, should be noted) ; 2d aor. act. cj^aov : fut. o^'Atjgu : perf. 
uxpAmta : perf. mid. or pass. fatyA-nfiai. 

(B.) dv affixed, with the insertion of the nasal sound, v before the char- 
acteristic consonant of the pure stem.— (The short vowel in the mid- 
dle of the pure stem is changed into a long one in inflection. — 
Except fiavddvo. — The v before a P-sound is changed into fi, and 
before a K-sound into y.) 

11. 'Epvyy-dv-u, I eructate (instead of kpv-v-yavu) ; 2d aor. act. 
Tjovyov : fut. kpev^ofiai. 

12. Oiyy-dv-u, I touch ; 2d aor. act. e-diyov : fut. d-l^ofiat. 

13. Aayx-dv-G), I obtain by lot; 2d aor. act. eAdxov: fut. 7Ji%o\iai'. 
perf. elArjxa: perf. mid. or pass, el Any fiat'. 1st aor. pass. eA7jx0nv. — 
(The perfect active form AiXoyxa is from a stem AETX-, and is 
rarely employed. .Compare irenovda, nadav, irevdoc.) 

14. AafiS-dv-o, I take ; 2d aor. act. sAddov : imper. Aa6e : fut. Arjipo- 
\iai : perf. ecArjda : perf. mid or pass. elXn/Lc/Liai : 1st aor. pass. IXtjty- 
6nv : 2d aor. mid. EAaSSfinv. 

15. Aavd-dv-G) (seldom ?^8cj), lam concealed; 2d aor. act. e?.adov : 
fut. Arjao : perf. AEArjda, lam concealed. — Mid., I forget : fut. ArjaofiaL : 
perf. ?JA7}<j/2ai : 2d aor. eAaOdfiyv. 

16. M.avd-dv-o, I learn ; 2d aor. act. ifidOov : fut. fiad/jaofiai : perf. 
/LLEjudOnKa. The a remains short, and the future and perfect are 
formed from a stem MA0E — according to (A). 

17. Hvvd-dv-ofiai, I inquire, I learn by inquiry; 2d aor. £7rv66/LLnv : 
perf. TTETTvcfiac, Tzeizvaai, &c. : fut. irevaoiiai. — Verbal adjective, neve- 
roc, nrevorioc. 

IS. Tvyx-dv-o), I hit (a mark), I obtain (with genitive), I happen ; 
2d aor. act. etvx ov f ut - TEvfrjuai (TETX-) : perf. TeTvxV Ka (TTXE-). 

19. $vyy-dv-G), collateral form of (pEvya), I flee ; fut. (pevt-ofxai and 
(pEV^ov/jLai : 2d aor. act. tyvyov : perf 7TE<pevya. — Verbal adjective, 
(J)evkt6c and tyEVKreoc. 



VERBS. 



34*7 



SO. XavS-dv-o), I hold, I contain (said of vessels) ; 2d aor. act. l%a- 
tW : perfect, with present signification, Kt%av6a : fut. x zl<so \ iai * 
(Stem XENA-: compare enadov, neicopai.) 



IV. Verbs whose Pure Stem is strengthened in the Present 
and Imperfect by the addition of the two Consonants ok, or 
the Syllable ion. 

Xk is added when the characteristic of the stem is a vowel, and 
lgk when a consonant. Most of the verhs whose pure stem ends in 
a consonant form the future, &c, according to the analogy of pure 
verbs ; as, evp-iGKco, future evprjoo> ('ETPE). Some of these take, 
in addition to this, a reduplication, which consists in the repetition 
of the first consonant of the root with the vowel i. 

1. ' Al'iGK-ofiat, I am caught or taken (said of a town); imperf. 
rjTiLGKOfivv : ( f AAO-) fut. aAcoGOfiat : 2d aor. rfkuv and iaXov {fit, page 
375), I was caught or taken : perf. TjhaKa and hakuKa, I have been 
caught. (For augment, see page 268.) The active is supplied by 
alpetv, in the signification to take, to obtain. 

2. 'A/z6/Wo7c-« (seldom dfiSTido)), I miscarry ; ('AMBAO-) fut. dfi- 
6?mgu : perf. fj^ltoKa. 

3. 'Avd?i-iGK-G), I spend, I vmste ; imperf dvifkiGKOv : fut. avdXcoGO : 
1st aor. act. avT/Xoaa and avdXuaa, KarnvaXoaa : perf. avrfkuna and 
avakwKa : perf. mid. or pass. dvijTiOfiac and dvaXufiai : 1st aor. avakd- 
07} v. 

4. 'Ap£-GK-cj, I please ; fut. dpsGQ : 1st aor. act. fjpEGa : perf. mid. 
or pass. rjpeGfiai : 1st aor. pass. rjpeGdrjv. — Mid. 

5. Bi6p6-GK-G), 1 eat {fut. Attic edo/uai : 2d aor. etyayov) ; perf. fie6- 
puKa : part. /3e6p6g : perf. mid. or pass. fleSpcjfiai : 1st aor. pass. k6- 
p6dnv. 

6. Teyov-iGK-u, I proclaim, I tell (mostly poetic) ; fut. yeyovrjou : 
1st aor. act. kyey&vnGa : perf. ysyuva, with present signification 
(rErflNEft). 

7. Yrjpa-GK-u (or ynpuo)), I grow old ; fut. ynpaGOfiai : 1st aor. act. 
eyrjpuGa : infin. ynp&Gac : perf. yeyrjpafca. 

8. Tiyv6-GK-o>, I know (PNG) ; fut. yvuGOfiai : 2d aor. act. eyvov 
(fit, page 374) : perf. eyvoica : perf. mid. or pass. eyvoGfiat. — Verbal 
adjective, yvuGTog, yvoGrioc. 

9. Aidpd-GK-G), I run away (usually in composition ; as, drrod.sKS. 
diad.) ; fut. SpuGOfzat : perf. dedpdfca : 2d aor. act. edpdv (/lli, p. 374). 

10. Evp-'.GK-G), I find; 2d aor. act. evpov : imper. evpe ( f EYPE-) : 



348 



VERBS. 



fut. evprjau : perf. evpjjKa : perf. mid. or pass. evprjfiat : 1st aor. pass, 
evpzdnv : 2d aor. mid. evpofinv.— Verbal adjective, evperog. 

11. f H6a-<7/f-w, J become manly; 1st aor. ac£. fyBnoa (ijSdu, I am 
young ; but dvnSdo), I become young again). 

12. Qvtj-gk-cj, usually dnodvr/GKu, I die (0AN) ; 2d aor. act. amda- 
vov : fut. airodavov/LLai : perf. reOvnua, &c. ; fut. perf redv^u, old 
Attic, and TedvrjtjojLiai, I shall be dead. 

13. 'IAa-ovc-o/zai, I propitiate, 1 appease ; fut. iXaGOfiai : 1st aor. mid. 
IXaadfinv. 

14. MeOv-gk-cj, I intoxicate ; fut. /xeOvgo) : 1st aor. act. kfi£dvoa. — 
But fiedvQ, I am intoxicated, borrows its tenses from the passive ; as, 
kfieOvadnv. 

15. Qp6-GK-G), I leap ; 2d aor. act. sOopov : fut. ftopovjuat : perf 
redopa. 

16. MifjLVTj-otc-G) (MNA-), I remind ; fut. fivrjao : 1st aor. act. efivncra : 
perf. mid. fiefivn/Liac (memini), I remember, I am mindful : subj. fiepvC)- 
fiai, y, fjTCLL : imper. fikfivnoo : pluperf kfiefiv^junv, I remembered : opt. 
fieuvr/uvv, yo, yro, or fiEfivufinv, wo, tiro : fut. perf. fiefivrjeofiai, I shall 
be mindful : 1st aor. pass. huvrjG&rjv : fut. pass. [MvnGdrjGOfJLai. 

17. Yldax^ (arising from TtddGKO)), I receive an impression, I suffer ; 
2d aor. enddov : (TIEN B-) fut. iretGOjuat : perf nercovda. — Verbal ad- 
jective, Tcadnrog. 

18. Hittl-gk-g), I give to drink; fut. TTtatj : 1st aor. act. sirlca. 

19. TJi7rpa-GK-o), I sell (future and aorist expressed in ordinary 
language by dirodu-GOfiai, aTCedofinv) ; perf. irEirpiiKa : perf. mid. or 
pass. neTrpd/iai (infin. TveirpaGdai) : 1st aor. pass, eirpadnv : fut. perf 
7r£irpuGo/j,ai, in the signification of the simple future (irpadriGOfiaL). 

20. HiTEp-LGK-G) (seldom GTEpecj), I deprive, I bereave ; fut. GTsp^Gu : 
1st aor. act. hGteprjGa : mid. and pass. areplGKOfiat, Gtepovfiai (privor) : 
fut. GrepriGOfiai : perf. EGTipnfiai : 1st aor. EGTEprjdnv. 

21. TiTp6-GK-o, I wound; fut. TpuGo : 1st aor. act. irpuGa : perf. mid. 
or pass. T£TpG)fiai : 1st aor. erpudnv : fut. Tptodr/Goftat and rpuGOfiac. 

22. $d-GK-w, I think, I assert ; imperf. ItyaGKov : fut. tyfjGo : 1st 
aor. ?<f>7]Ga. — (Probably there is no example of the present indicative 
to be found ; for ^ugkovgl in Plato, Phced., 113, c, is changed by 
Heindorf to XeyovGt. Compare Elms ley, Heracl., 903. But <j)dGKo, 
as a present subjunctive, occurs in Aristophanes, Vesp., 561.) 

23. XaGKcj, I open my mouth (XAN-) : 2d aor. act. ex&vov : fut. 
Xavovpai : perf. aexnva, I stand open, I gape: 

Remark. Aidd-GK-o, I teach, retains the K-sound in the forma- 
tion of its tenses : fut. diddt-u : 1st aor. kdldatja : perf. dededaxa : 
1st aor. pass, kdtddxdrjv. 



VERBS. 



349 



V. Verhs whose Pure Stem is strengthened at the beginning 
by the addition of a reduplication. 

This reduplication consists in the repetition of the first consonant 
of the stem in conjunction with the vowel i. It remains in the for- 
mation of the tenses in a few verhs only. To this class belong, for 
example, 

1. Bt6d£o), to lift up; fut. j3t6a<jG) : Attic (3i6co, qZc, a. 

2. Tiyvo(iaL (instead of -ytyevofiai), I become (common form ytvo- 
fiat), (TEN-) : 2d aor. mid. kyevofinv : perf. yeyevr/fiai, I have become, 
or yeyova, with a present signification, I am; fut. yevijaofiaL. 

3. TUittg) (instead of izi-Keru), I fall; imperat. nt-nre (TIET-) : fut. 
necrovfiai : 2d aor. act. eireaov : perf irinTUKa, with an irregular 
change of the radical vowel. 

Remark. To this class belong, also, some of Class iv. ; as, 
yiyvacKG). 



VI. Verbs which have the Pure Stem in the Present and Im- 
perfect, but in the remaining tenses suppose a Stem with e 
as the characteristic. 

Remark. The e is changed into rj in inflection. Exceptions, 

acdufiai, uxOofiai, and jbiaxo/uai. 

1. Aidopcat, 1 feel ashamed (in the common language aidio/iai) ; 
imperf. aido^v, without augment. {Pres. and imperf. old poetic 
forms): fut. aldeaofiac and atdr/GOfiat : 1st aor. mid. ijdeod/ivv : 1st 
aor. pass, ijdeodrjv. 

2. 'AXefw, I ward off; fut. ake^rjcu.—Mid., I ward off from myself; 
fut. dTie^rjaofiat : 1st aor. mid. ffiegdfinv (from AAEK12). 

3. "AxOofiai, I am displeased ; fut. dxGeao/xaL : 1st aor. pass, ^fleff- 
drjv : fut. axOeadqaofiat, of the same meaning as dxdeaopai. 

4. Bookg), I feed ; fut. fioGnrjob) : 1st aor. eCoGKnaa. — Mid., I feed, 
intransitive. 

5. BovTiofiai, I wish (2d person povkei, page 260) ; fut. povTirjco/iai : 
perf (3e6ovXr}fjtat : 1st aor. pass. k6ovhf/0nv and 7j6ov7iT]dnv . (Concern- 
ing augment, see page 264.) 

6. Aecj, I want ; usually impersonal, del, it is necessary or needful. 
—Subjunct. den : opt. Seoi : infin. delv : part, deov : imperf edei : fut. 
tiefjcet : 1st aor. act. kdirjoe.—Mid., deofzai, I need ; fut. dtrjaofiat: 1st 
aor. pass. kderjOi/v. 

7. 'E^eAw and J wish ; imperf fjde'kov and eOeAov : fut. kde- 

G G 



350 



VEliBS. 



Tiijao) and ^eX^go : 1st aor. act. rjOilrjoa and kdelriGa : per/, only fjQi* 

8. ~EIXcj, I press, I shut in ; fut. elMjGa : perf. mid. or pass. Eilrifiai : 
1st aor. pass, EiTirjdrjv. 

9. E1POMAI. — 2d aor. ^pofirjv, I asked, kpeodat, epupai, Epotfiyv, 
hpov, epdfievoc : fut. epfjaofiai. — The other tenses are supplied by 
kpoTav. 

10. "Eppco, I go forth; fut. epfirjco : 1st aor. jjfifiqaa. 

11. E&Sq, usually Kadevdo, 1 sleep ; fut. KadEvSrjGu. (For augment, 
see page 274.) 

12. v E^w, I have, I hold ; imperf. eIxov : 2d aor. aa egxov : infin* 
oxelv : imperat. o^ef, Tcap&Gxec (pi, page 373) : subj. gx&, yc (7rapaa- 
#6), irap&GxyCi & c -) : °pt- gxoltjv (fie, page 373) : part. gx&v : fut. e£g) 
and gxigg) : perf egx^ku : 2d aor. mid. egxo(jlt]v : subj. er^oi/zat : opt. 
Gxolfiyv : imperat. gxov (irapaGxov) : infin. Gx&Gdat (jTapaGxZGdai) : 
part. Gxofievog : fut. GxVGOfjiai : perf. mid. or pass. Igx^gll : 1st aor, 
pass. EGxedtjv. — Verbal adjective, ektoc and gx^toc. 

13. "Et//o>, I boil; fut. EiprjGu. — Verbal adjective, ktydoc, or sipnToc, 

E1p7]T£0C. 

14. Kadl^o), I set, I sit ; imperf. ekuOlZov, old Attic, KaBl^ov : fut. 
Kadiu : 1st aor. act. EtcadiGa (old Attic, KadiGa) : perf KtKaOiKa. — Mid., 
I sit ; fut. Kadt^rjGOjbtaL : 1st aor. EKadiGajwnv, 1 placed for myself I had 
placed. But Kade^ofiat, I sit ; imperf. EKadE^ofirjv : fut. Kadedov/uaL. 

15. Ki]6(jj, I make anxious (active only Epic) ; fut. KrjdrjGo : perf. 
tcEKTjda. — Mid. Krjdoimi, I am anxious, in prose only the present and 
imperfect. — In iEschylus we find KrjdsGai. : 1st aor. imperat. mid. 
(S. c. Theb., 138). 

16. KXato, I weep, Attic tclao), without contraction : fut. mid. 
uTiavGofxat and ulavGovpai (page 340), more rarely KXairjGO) or ular)- 
Go : 1st aor. act. EK^avGa : perf KEKkavp.ai and KEKlavGfJiat. — Mid.— 
Verbal adjective, K^avroc, tOiavGTEoc. 

17. Muxofiac, I contend; fut. fxaxovjuac (instead of fiaxEGufiat) : 1st 
aor. £fiax£Gdfj.7]v : perf n£p,ax' n l iai ' — Verbal adjective, [laxerioc and 
fiaxvTEoc. 

18. Mfc'/l/lw, / think, I intend, I hesitate, hence I delay; impe r f. fy/e/l- 
Tiov and i]\ieXKov : fut. //e/U^crw : 1st aor. act. hpLEKkriGa. (For aug- 
ment, see page 264.) 

19. MsXei [iol tivoc, cur a mihi est aliquid (seldom personal, /ueXcj) ; 
fut. [lEXrjGEi : 1st aor. act. EfisXyGE : perf. fiEfxHrjKE. — Mid. fiiXofiai, 
usually ETTifMEXofiat, and very often, also, ETTLjuEhwfiat : fut. kiri[i£?iri- 
Go/uat (sometimes ETrifieTinOf/Gc/Ltai) : 1st aor. pass. E7TE/uE?irj6?jv . — -The 
compounds, as /lErafieXsL, poznitet, are only used impersonally. — 



VERBS* 



851 



Epic, perf. fie/unls, &c. — In prose we find fiEfinla, with both the sig- 
nification of a present, and its own also ; as, euro, curavi. 

20. Mv£o, I suck; fut. fiV^ou, &c. 

21. v O£(j, I" smell ; fut. b&au : 1st aor. act. ufyca : perf. ododa, with 
a present signification. 

22. Olouai, I think, and olfiat ; 2d person olu (page 260) : impcrf. 
G)6/uj]v and tifivv : fut. oirjcofiai, : 1st aor. hrjdrjv, oindfjvai. (For aug- 
ment, see page 266.) 

23. Olxofiaiy I am gone forth (abii) ; imperf. uxopnv, I tvent forth : 
fut. olxv^ofiat : perf. tixv^h in ordinary language only as a com- 
pound ; as, i:apCixW aim 

24. } 0(j>el?icj, I am under obligation, I ought (debeo) ; fut. o^elKt] a cj : 
1st aor. act. utyE'iknaa : 2d aor. &(f>eXov, eg, e (1st and 2d plural not 
used), in expressions of desire : utinam. 

25. Ylalw, I strike ; fut. iraiao) (Attic collateral form naLyoo, in 
Aristophanes) : 1st aor. act. Eiraiaa : perf nErraiKa. Passive, with 
a (page 287).— Mid. 

26. UepSu : 2d aor. errapSov : fut. Tzapdrjao/iai : perf. Tvenopda (page 
294). 

27. UsTOfiai, Ifly; fut. TTTrjaofiat : 2d aor. Eirrofinv, Ttrecdai, ettttjv^ 
and E7TT(lfj,nv {ill, page 375) : perf. irETrornfiaL. 

28. Xalpu, I rejoice ; fut. x ai PV G( ^ '■ 2d aor. pass, ex&pnv (pi, page 
375) : perf KExapnua, I have rejoiced, and KExd-pn/uai, I am rejoiced. 

Remark. Among these verbs may be classed several liquid 
verbs, which, however, form the future and aorist regularly ; 
as, for example, pho, I remain: perf. fiEfiEvnKa, otherwise regu- 
lar. — vEjutj, I divide, I distribute, I allot ; fut. vEfiti and vepovpai : 
1st aor. act. evei/uo. : perf. VEvefivKa : 1st aor. pass. hvefifjQnv (sel- 
dom kvefisdnv) : perf mid. or pass. vevEfjinfiai. — Mid. 



VI I. Verbs to whose Pure Stem an e is added in the Present 
and Imperfect 

1. Tafzio), I marry (said by a man) ; perf. yeydfinKa, but fut. yafuo . 
1st aor. act. fynfia : infin. yfjuai. — Mid. yajuovfiai (with dative), I am 
married (said by a woman) : fut. yafiovfiat : 1st aor. kyrj/LLdfinv : pass, 
in matrimonium ducor : 1st aor. kya/nr/dnv, &c. 

2. Yndioi, usually perf yeynda, I rejoice ; fut. yndrjeo. 

3. Aokeg), I appear, I think ; fut. dotja) : 1st aor. act. ido^a : perf 
pass, de'doyjiai, visus sum : 1st aor. pass, kdoxdrjv. 

4. 'MapTvpsu, I bear testimony ; fut. /LtapTvprjvG), &C— But paprvpo* 
fiat, deponent middle, / call to witness, 



352 



VERBS. 



5. Svpeo), I shear. — Mid. l-vpofiai : 1st aor. k^vpajayv, but perf. h^v- 

pupae 

6. 'ttdeco, I push ; imperf. euOovv : fut. toco and cjOtjcu : 1st aor. act. 
eo)(ja : infin. uoat : perf. ecjko. : perf. mid. or pass, eocfiat : 1st aor, 
pass, kuoOnv. (For augment, see page 267.) — Mid. 

VIII. Verbs whose Tenses are derived from different Roots, 
connected only in signification. 

1. Aipto, I take, I receive (for example, a town) ; fut. alpijao) : 
perf. yprjKa : 2d aor. act. (from 'EA-) elXov : infin. eXelv : 1st aor. 
pass, ypedrjv : fat. pass, aipedrjoo/xai. — Mid., to choose : fut. alprjcouai : 
2d aor. Eihofinv. (For augment, see page 267.) — Verbal adjective, 
aipEToc, alperioc. 

2. "Epxoftai, I go, I come (the other moods and participials are 
borrowed from elfit ; thus, Zpxofiai, Wt, toifti, lo, ttvat, iuv ) : imperf. 
rjpxopyv, and yecv or ya (from elfit) : fut. elfu (present used as such 
by the Attics) : (EAEY9-), perf. hXrjTivda : 2d aor. fj"kdov : imper. 
eK6e : opt. eWotfiL : subj. eXOcj : infin. eaQeiv : part. eW6v. — Verbal 
adjective, eTievgteov. 

3. 'Eodlcj, I eat ; imperf yadcov : fut. ido/iat : perf kS^doKa : 2d aor. 
act. (from <&AF-) ftyayov : infin. (payslv : perf. mid. or pass. ed^tfca/zaj : 
1st aor. pass, ydfcdnv. — Verbal adjective, kdearoc. 

4. r Opaw, / see ; imperf. kupuv : perf scjpdKa (for augment, see 
page 268) : 2d aor. act. (from IA-) eldov, ids, idoifu, Idu, ISelv, idcov : 
fut. (from Oil-) ofofiai : 2d person oipst (page 260) : mid. or pass, 
dpufiat : perf. mid. or pass: kupdfiai, or (jfifiai, dtpac, &c. : infin. titydai : 
2d aor. mid. Eido/binv, idov, idotfinv, ISujuai, id-iadai, &c, and (in the 
signification of ecce) idov, as a simple, poetic only: 1st aor. pass. 
ax^Onv : infin. bQOijvaL : fut. pass, btpdrjoofiai. — Verbal adjective, bpd- 
toc and oittqc. 

5. TpExu, I run ; (APEM-) fut. mid. Spafiovfiai : 2d aor. act. Edpa- 
ptov : perf. 6E6pdfinKa : perf mid. or pass. dEdpdfinjuat. 

6. Qspcj, I hear ; (OI-) fut. olgg) : (ENEFK-) 1st aor. act. TjvEyna : 
2d aor. act. rjvEyKov : 1st aor. opt. EVEytcaifit : 2d aor. infin. kvEytcsiv : 
part. £VEyn6v\ imper. EVEyttE, -arc), &c. : (ENEK-) perf. Evrjvoxa . 
perf. mid. or pass. EvfjVEy/uai (-ytjai, -yKrai, or EvrjvEKTat) : 1st aor. 
mid. fjvEyKctfinv : imper. Evsytcai : inf. -aodat : part. -d/iEvog : 1st aor. 
pass. rjvEx^nv : fut. kvExO^aofiac and oiadrjaofiai. — Verbal adjective, 

OIGTOC, OLOTEO^. Mid. 

7. Qijfii (page 367), I say ; imperf kiprjv, with aorist meaning, also 
$dvai and <jxic : (EII-) 1st aor. Etna, Einac, slrcare : imper. eIttov, 



VERBS. 



353 



elndrcj : inf. elnai : 2d aor. elirov, dire, elTroiftt, elrro, riireiv, elttuv. — 
From the Epic present elpo : fut. kpu : perf. elpntca : per/, mid. or 
pass, elpr/fiai : fut. perf eiprjGoiiai. — From PE- : 1st aor. pass, epprj- 
Orjv, pvOrjvaL, prjdeig : fut. pass, (jridrjaofxat. — Mid. only in composition : 
fut. airepovfiai, and 1st aor. air einaoO a i, to deny, to despair, like arzei- 
nelv. — Verbal adjective, pr}rog, pnreog. 

(B.) Verbs in MI. 

I. The chief peculiarity of the conjugation in -fit is, that 
the verbs which follow it have different personal endings 
from those of the conjugation in o), in the present and im- 
perfect, and some in the second aorist active and middle 
also, and have no mood-vowel in these tenses. 

II. The formation of all the other tenses of these verbs 
agrees with that of verbs in a>, except some few deviations, 

III. Some verbs in -fit which have a stem of one sylla- 
ble take a reduplication in the present and imperfect, which 
is thus effected : if the stem begins with a simple conso- 
nant, or a mute with a liquid, the first consonant of the stem 
is repeated with i ; but if the stem begins with or, rrr, or 
an aspirated vowel, an i with the rough breathing is placed 
before the stem as a substitute. There are only a few of 
these verbs ; as, 



2TA, 




I place. 


0E, 


Ti-drj-fit, 


I set. 


XPA, 




I lend. 


AO, 


SC-dco-fii. 


I give. 


<E, 




I send. 



Classification of Verbs in -fit. 
Verbs in are divided into two general classes, namely, 
I. Such as join the personal endings immediately on to 
the stem-vowel. The stem of verbs of this class ends 
(a.) In a ; as, l-crn-pi, I place, Stem 2TA-. 
(b.) "e; " Ti-drj-fiL, I set, " GE-. 
(c.) "o; " dl-da-pi, I give, " AO-. 
(d.) " l\ " el-fit, I go, " 
G g 2 



354 



VERBS. 



II. Such as add the syllable vvv or vv to their stem, and 
then attach the personal endings to this syllable. The 
stem of verbs of this class ends 

(A.) In one of the three vowels a, e, o, and takes vvv. m 
(a.) In a ; as, otcedd-vvv-fii, I scatter, Stem 2KEAA-. 
(b.) " e; " KOpe-uvv-fjLt, I satiate, " KOPE-. 
(c.) " o ; " Grp6-vvv-/u, I spread, " 2TPO-. 

(B.) In a consonant, and takes vv. 

(a.) In a mute ; as, de'uc-vv-fu, I show, Stem AEIK-. 

(b.) In a liquid ; as, Sfc-vv-fiL, I swear, " OM-. 

Remark. Of the second class, only the verb cBe-vvv-fii, I 
quench, from the root 2BE-, forms the second aorist, namely, 
iodnv. 



THE MOOD-VOWEL. 

I. The indicative of the present, imperfect, and second 
aorist has no mood-vowel, and the personal endings are, 
consequently, joined immediately on to the verbal stem ; as, 

1-dTa-aev, k-ri-defiev, e-So-fiev, 

l-Grd-ueda, k-TL-di-fxeda, e-66-fie6a 

II. The subjunctive has the mood-vowels o> and rj, like 
verbs in w, but they blend with the characteristic vowel 
into one sound ; in consequence of which, the following 
deviations from the conjugation in o, as far as regards con- 
traction, are to be observed : namely, 

an and ay are changed into r) and y (not, as in contracted verbs 
in do, into a and a) : 6?j is changed into & (not, as in contracts 
in So, into ol) : thus, 

i-GTGL-G) — i-GTG), L-GTa-TfC — l-GTye, l-GTU-TJ-TUL = i-GT7)-Tai y 

GT&-G) — gt&, Grd-nc = orrig, 
TL'Qe-o) = Ti-dfi, Ti-de-yc =3 Tc-dyc, Ti-de-a-juai — ri-du-fiai, 
Si-do-o = dc-Sci), Sc-66-yc — di-d&c,, di-do-n — di-dti. 

The subjunctive of both aorists in the passive of all verbs fol- 
lows this formation of the subjunctive of iGrniii and ridr/fii ; as, 
TV^d-cj, -yc, ~y, &c. — Tvn-u, -ye, -y, from tvttto. — Grad-u, from 

lOTTJftl. 



VERBS. 



355 



Remark. The subjunctive of verbs in -vfii does not differ from 
the formation in -v(o ; as, Seikvv-co, -yg, &c. 

III. The optative of the present and aorist has c, which 
is joined immediately on to the characteristic vowel, and 
forms a diphthong with it ; as, 

Active. Active. Middle. 

Opt. Pr. I-gtcl-l-tjv = i-GTat-7}v, 2 Aor. gtcll-7]v, Pres. i-GTai-firjv. 

" " TL-de-L-TjV = TL-6eL-7]V, " 6eI-7}V, " TL-deL-flTJV . 

" " dt-So-t-r/v = dL-dol-Tjv, " dot-Tjv^ " 6i-6ot-{jLrjv. 

The optative formation of verbs in e (rldrjfii) is followed in 
the optative passive of both aorists of all verbs ; as, cra-Bei-riv, 

TV$-deL-7}Vy TVTZ-EL-7JV. 

Remark. The present optative of verbs in -v/il follows the 
formation in w, like the present subjunctive ; as, deuivvoLfii. 



PERSONAL ENDINGS. 

I. For the active there are the following personal forms : 
(A.) For the indicative present : 



Singular 1 




l-OT7}-fll. 




2 




L-GT7J-C. 




3 


GI{V\ 


1-gtt]-gl(v). 


Dual 


2 


rov f 


L-GTd-TOV. 




3 


TOVy 


L-GTd-TOV. 


Plural 


1 




l-GTd-fiev. 




2 


TEy 


L-GTd-TE. 




3 


[VGI(V)], 


[l-GTa-VTL, -GTCl-VGl(v)). 



The ending of the third person plural vgl(v) was changed into 
dGL(v), and then contracted with the foregoing stem-vowel of 
the verb. The Attic dialect, however, allows this contraction 
only in the case of roots ending in a : thus, 

From 1-GTd-vGi comes (l-GTd-dGL)> l-Grdm. 

" TL-Oe-VGL " TL-0SLGL, Att. TL-Bs-dGL. 

" dl-do-vGi * dL-dovGi, " dL-86-dGi. 
" Selkvv-vgl " Selkvvgl, * §£lKVV-dGl. 

(B.) The personal endings of the present and second 
aorist subjunctive do not differ from those of the conju- 
gation in a). 



356 VERBS. 



(C.) For the imperfect and second aorist indicative : 



Singular 1 


V, 


Imperf. 


1-GT7J-V, 


k-TL-0r}V. 




2 


f» 




l-OTTJ-g, 


k-TL-drjg. 




3 




n 


1-GT7], 


e-tl-Qtj. 


Dual 


2 


TOV, 


2d Aor. 


E-GT7J-TOV, 


E-0E-TOV. 




3 


T7}V t 




k-GTTj-TrjVy 


E-dE-TTjV. 


Plural 


1 




it 


E-GTTj-flEV, 


E'6e-[iev. 




2 


TS, 


it 


E-GTTj-TE, 


e-Oe-te. 




3 


oav, 


ti 


E-GTTj-GdV, 


e-Oe-gclv. 



(D.) The personal endings of the present and second 
aorist optative, with the exception of the first person sin- 
gular, differ from those of the historical tenses indicative, 
in the conjugation in G), only in being preceded by an rj ; 
as, 

gto,c-7]v, I'Orai-rjv, — $£i-7]v, Ti-Oel-Tjv, — doC-rjv, dL-dot-rjv. 

Remark. In the dual and plural of the optative present the tj 
is generally excluded, and the ending of the third person plural 
-riGav is contracted into -ev ; as, 

Tld£L-7][l£V — TldelfiEVj LGTCLl-7]TE — IGTCLLTE, 

TLOsl-JJGaV — T10EIEV, dldoL-TJGCLV — SldoiEV. 

This holds good of the optative passive aorists of all verbs ; 

aS, TVfpdsiTJjLLEV = TV(j)6£l/LLEV l TV7Y£L7]fl€V = TVTTEiflEV (exactly like 

Ttdelr/v). — On the contrary, in the optative aorist second active 
of the verbs lg'ttj/lli, tcOtj/lil, dldu/Lct, the shortened forms are very 
rare, with the exception of the third person plural. 



(E.) For the imperative present and second aorist : 



Sing. 2 




(l-GTCL-Ol), 
L-GTa-TU), 


{ti-Oe-Ol), 


(di-do-di). 


3 


TO), 


TL-6E-TG), 


dt-66-TG). 


Dual 2 


TOV, 


l-GTCL-TOV, 


tl-6e-tov, 


dL-So-Tov. 


3 


TG)V, 


i-GT(l-T(dV, 


TL-de-TLdV, 


dl-d6-TG)V. 


Plural 2 


T£, 


l-GTa-TE, 


ti-Be-te, 


dc-do-TE. 


3 


TCJGCLV, 


i-GTLL-TlDGCLV, OY 


> Ti-de-ToGav, or 


1 dt-do- tugclv, or ) 






i-GTavruv, 


1 tl-6evtg)v, 


1 dt-dovTuv. \ 



Remark. The second person singular imperative present 
throws off the ending and, to make up for it, the short char- 
acteristic vowel is lengthened ; namely, a into ?/, e into ei, o 
into ov, and v into v. 

l-GTa-Oc becomes 1~gtti, tl-6e-6l becomes rt-Oei, 

dl-do-Ot " dc-dov, SecK-vv-Ot " Selkvv. 

The ending $1 is retained by very few verbs in the present. 
In the second aorist of Tldrjfu, Irjfxt, and dldufti, it is changed 



VERBS. 



357 



into c ; thus, d-i-dt becomes dec '• = : h ' ^o-6l — dog : but in 
the second aorist ofiGTijfii this ending is retained. Thus, oTrj- 
6t, and, in the same way, in both aorists passive of all verbs ; 
as, Tvirtj-di, naidevdrj-ri (instead of nai dev67]-6i, page 34, § 4). 
In composition, the ending -r)dt in ott}6l may be shortened into 
a ; as, trapaGTd, anoard. 

(F.) The ending of the infinitive present and second 
aorist is -vat. This is affixed to the short characteristic 
vowel, in the present, but to the lengthened one (a into 
7], e into et 9 o into ov) in the second aorist. 

Pres., i-GTa-vai, I rc-de-vat, | di-66-vac, I dstKvv-vai, 
2d Aor., arrj-vai, del-vat., \ dov-vai, | . 

The infinitive of the passive aorists of all verbs is like arrival ; 
as, Tviry-vaL, povTievdfj-vai. 

(G.) The endings of the participles present and sec- 
ond aorist are vrg, vraa, vt, which unite with the char- 
acteristic vowel, according to the customary rules ; thus, 

i-GTa-vrg — i-GTug, i-GTaGa, i-GTav, GTag, gt&gcl, gtclv. 
rt-de-vrg = tl-6elc, -eigcl, -ev, -&Etg, &elGa % &ev. 
di-66-vTQ = di-dovc, -ovgcIj -6v, dovg, 6ovgcl, 66v. 
deiKvv-vrc = deuc-vvg, -vgcl, -vv. 
The participles of both passive aorists of all verbs follow 
rideis or fteLQ ; as, tvix-els, -slaa, -ev, &c. 

II. The personal endings of the middle entirely agree 
with those of the verbs in 6), but in the second person sin- 
gular indicative present and imperfect, and the present im- 
perative, the personal endings in many cases retain their 
full form (oat and go). See the Paradigms. 

Remark 1. The singular imperfect active of tLBthil and didofu 
is generally formed from TIOES2 and AIAOQ, with the customary 
contractions. 

Remark 2. In verbs in vjut, coexisting forms in vu are used 
for the whole present, and generally for the imperfect, especial- 
ly for the third person plural indicative, and the participle ; and 
exclusively for the present optative and subjunctive ; as, ev~ 
6elkvvu, bpvvo, GvfifuyvvG), as well as hdeiKvv/u, ofivv(u, cvp- 
{ilyvv/Lti. 



358 



VERBS. 



TENSE FORMATION. 
E. First Class of Verbs in -{it. 

I. In the formation of the tenses of the whole active, as 
well as of the future and first aorist middle, the short char- 
acteristic vowel a, £, o, is lengthened, namely, a into rj, e 
into rj, and (in the perfect active of Tt&rflzi and lr\\ii) into ei, 
o into to. 

II. The short characteristic vowel is retained, however, 
in the other tenses of the middle, and all the tenses of the 
passive, with the exception of the perfect and pluperfect of 
Tidrjfii and Irjfi^ which have the et of the perfect active ; 
as, reOeifca, redetfiai, eIko,, elfzai. 

III. The first aorist active and middle of Tifhjfii, IrjfMi, 
and didG)[ii, has k (not a) for its tense-characteristic ; as, 
e-On-K-a, fj-tc-a, e-do)-fca. 

But the forms of the first aorist active, ed^ica, $/ca, and e&j/ca, 
are used only in the indicative, and principally in the singular 
only. In the other persons, as well as the other moods and the 
participials, the forms of the second aorist are generally used. 
So, also, those of the second aorist middle were employed in- 
stead of those of the first aorist middle of r'ldrjui, ltj/m, and dido* 
(it.. On the contrary, the indicative forms of the second aorist 
singular of tcOtj/il, Itj/lll, and dcdu^i, namely, edqv, %v, and sdcov, 
were not at all used. 

IV. The verb tOTr\\Li forms the first aorist active and 
middle like verbs in 6), with the tense-characteristic a ; as, 
e-orrj-o-a, e~OT7j-o-d{i7]v. The second aorist middle eordfir]v 
is not at all used. But some other verbs form it ; as, en- 
rd[xrjv, k^pid\ir\v. 

Remark 1. The second aorist and second future passive are 
wanting in these verbs, as well as the future perfect, except in 
t&HMfiu (egtt/Zg), old Attic, and kvrri^onai). 

Remark 2. With regard to signification, the following is to 
be observed respecting the verb Igttjui, : the present, imperfect, 
future, and first aorist active have the transitive signification 
to place. On the contrary, the second aorist, the perfect and 
pluperfect active, and the future perfect have the reflexive or 



VERBS. 



350 



intransitive signification, to place one's self, to stand ; thus, la- 
ttjv, I placed myself, or stood : earrjica, I have placed myself, I 
stand: eorrjKeiv, I had placed myself (and remained so), i. e. } I 
was standing : iar^u, iarr^ojuac, I will stand. The middle sig- 
nifies, either to place for one's self, or have erected, or place one's 
self, or have one's self placed, i. e., be placed. 



II. Second Class of Verbs in -fit. 

I. The formation of the tenses of verbs of the second 
class involves no difficulty. After throwing off the ending 
.vvvfjLt and -vv[jU, all tenses are formed from the stem. 

II. The verbs in o, which have this lengthened into d) in 
the present, retain the (0 through all the tenses ; as, orpu)- 

VVV-fll, %G)-VVV-fll, pte-VVV-fjLL, XGJ-VVV-llL, flit. GTpUOG), ^G)OG), 

&c. But verbs whose stem ends in a liquid take a theme 
ending in a vowel in the formation of some of their tenses ; 
as, b\i-vv-\ii, aor. &-fio-oa, from 'OMOw. 

III. The second aorist and second future passive are 
found only in a few verbs ; as, for example, ^evy-vv-[it. 



360 



VERBS. 
PARADIGMS OF 



ACTIVE. 



-a 
o 
o 




rsons. 


2TA, place. 


0E, put. 


AO, give. 


AEIK, show. 


J_ 
















s. 




1-GTTj-jLLL, 


TL-dTj-flL^ 


dl-dco-fiL, 


dstli-VV-flLy 1 






2 








6elk-vV"C 1 


W 

r> 




3 


"l-cty}-gl{v), 


TL-6l]-GL{v) y 


6i-du>-Gi(v)y 


6elk-vv-gl(v), 


D. 


1 






2 


l-GTa-TOVy 


rt-de-Tov, 


di-do-TOv, 


6elk-vv-tov, 






3 


l-GTVL-TQV, 


tl-Be-tov, 


Sl-do-TOv, 


6elk-vv-tov, 


S 


P. 


1 


l-ard-fzevy 


tL-Be-[iev, 


6c-6o-fj,Ev t 


Selk-vv-uev, 






2 


l-GTd-TE, 


tl-Be-te, 


di-do-TE, 


6elk-vv-te, 






3 


l-gtClgl{v), 


TL-de-dGi{y) 


6i-66-dGL{y) 


6eik-vv-ugl(v) 








(from Lgtu- 


and ri-dei- 


and di-dov- 


and 6elk-vv- 








(IGL), 


Gl(v), 


Gl(v), 


gi(v), 




S. 


S 


1-GTCIL-7}V, 


TL-Be'l-7]V, 


di-dol-rjv, 


dELKVV-Olfll, 






2 


L-G70LL-71C, 


TL-0EI-7JC, 


di-doi-Tjg, 


Seikvv-oic, 


a 




3 


L-GTat-rj, 


Ti-Oel-Tj, 


dc-dol-7], 


&c, 


p> 


D. 


1 














2 


l-GTCLL-TOV, 


ti-Bel-tov, 


di-doi-TOV, 




H 
a. 




3 


l-GTCLL-TTJV, 


TL-6eL-T7JV, 


di-doL-TTjV, 




o 


P. 


1 


L-Gral-fiev, 


Ti-det-fiev, 


di-doi-fiev, 








2 


L-Grai-re, 


TL-BeZ-TE, 


di-dol-TE, 








3 


i-Gral-ev, 


tl-Bel-ev, 


Sl-Sol-ev, 






S. 


1 


l-gtC), 


Tt-dtij 




dElK-VV-G), 






2 


L-GTyC, 




di-dtic, 


dELK-VV-TjC, 


> 




3 


l-GTy, 


Ti-Oy, 


di-dti, 


&c, 




D. 


1 




o 




2 


L-GTrj-TOVj 


Tl-Orj-TOV, 


dt-du-TOV, 








3 


l-GTjj-TOV, 


ri-drj-Tov, 


di-du-TOV, 




& 


P. 


1 


l-GTG)-fl£V> 


Tl-BC)-fJLEV, 


di-du-fiev. 




X> 




9 


l-GTf/-T€, 


TL-dfj-TE. 


(h-d&-T£, 








3 


i-GTij-Gl(v), 


TL-Bti-Gl(v), 


6l-6(j-gl(v), 






S. 


2 


l-GTrj, 


TL-Bst, 


di-dov, 


6eU-vv, 








(fr. LGTudl), 


(fr. tIBeBl), 


(fr. dtdoBi), 


(fr. 5elkvv6l) 






3 


l-GTu-TU, 


TL-Be-TG), 


di-do-TG), 


Seik-vv-tcj, 


>. 
H 


D. 


2 


l-GTa-TOV, 


TI-Be-TOV, 


di-do-TOv, 


SeIk-vv-tov, 






3 


i-GTU-TG)V } 


Tt-Bs-TCOV, 


dt-d6-TG)V, 


Selk-vv-tov, 




P- 


2 


i-GTd-re, 


tl-Be-te, 


dl-do-TE, 


6elk-vv-te, 


eu 




3 


I-GTU-TUGCIV 


TL Be-TDGCLV 


di-66-TiDGav 


dElK-VV-TOGCLV 








and i-GTuv- 


and tl-Bev- 


and di-dov- 


and dsiK- 








TG)V, 


TOV, 


TO)V, 


VVVTCJV, 


IB 




l-GTU-VCLL, 


ti-Oe-vcll, 


di-66-vai, 


6ELK-VV-VaL, 


Eh 






i-orag, ana, 


TL-Bel^. ElGCl, 


St-dovc, OVGU, 


dEl.K-VV£, i'GO, 








uv. G. dvrog. 


EV, G. EVTOC. 


OV, G OVTOC. 


VV, G. VVTnc' 



1. And Seikvv-o, elc, &c, particularly 6elkvvovgl(v). So, also, in 
he imperf. eSe'kvvov, ve£, ve(v). 
Z. Commonly deiicvv-wv, ovgcl, ov. 



VERBS. 361 



VERBS IN MI. 



MIDDLE. 


2TA, place. 


QE, put. 


AO, give. 


AEIK, show. 


1-GTU-fJ.ai, 


rt-0£-ftai, 


6l- do- fiat, 


detK-vv-fiat, 


l-GTa-oai, 


TL-Oe-Gat and H- 


dt- do-Gab, 


deiK-vv-Gat, 




0«, 






l-GTa-rai, 


rl-de-TCU, 


d l- do-rat, 


detK-vv-rat, 


u.-gtu-/li£0ov, 


TL-6e-/Liedov, 


dt-do-fj,£0ov, 


detK-vv-fji£0ov, 


l-GTa-odov, 


tI-Oe-gOov, 


dt-do-o6ov, 


detK-vv-Gdov, 


l-Gra-cdov, 


rl-de-odov, 


dt do-G0ov, 


de'tK-vv-odov, 


l-GTu-fieda, 


TL-de-fieda, 


dt-do-fi£$a, 


detK.-vv-fj.E0a, 


l-GTCL-Gde, 


TL-de-ade, 


di-do-G0E, 


d£tK-VV-G0E, 


l-Gra-vrai, 


TL-de-VTai, 


dt-do-vrat, 


dttK-w-vrat, 


l-GTal-/J,7]V, 


Tt-0Ot-flT]V, 


dt dot firiv, 


dEtKvv-oifirjv, 


t-Grai-o, 


Ti-doi-o, 


dt-dot-o, 


d£lKPV-OlO, 


i-GTCLl-TO, 


TL-tfot-TO, 


dt-dot-ro, 


&c, 


i-Gral-juedov, 


Tt-0oi-fiE0ov, 


dt-dot-fiedov, 




i-GTCLl-G60V, 


ti-Ool-gOov. 


dt-doi-G0ov, 




t-GTa't-G07]V, 


Tt-0ot-G07]V, 


dt-dot-G07)V, 




l-GTal-fieda, 


TL-OoL-fieOa, 


dt-dot-fi£0a, 




i-Grai-Gde, 


Tl-0Ot-G0E, 


dt-dot-G0e, 




l-GTCLL-VTO, 


Tt-0ol-VTO, 


dt-dot-vro, 




l-GTG)-f/,ai, 


rt-Ocj-fiaif 


dt-dCo-fiat, 


detKvv-ufiat, 


i-Gry, 


TL-6y, 


dt-dC), 


dEtuvv-rj, 


i-GT7}-TCLl, 


rt-0fj-rat, 


dt-du-rat, 


&c, 


L-GTU-fJiedoV, 


rc-OtJ-fiedov, 


dt-d6-fi£0ov, 




1-gt7)-g6ov, 


Tt-0f{-G0OV, 


dt-dti-Gdov, 




1-gtt)-g0ov, 


Tt-0f]-G0OV, 


dt-d£)-G0ov, 




i-GTLJ-fieOa, 


rt-0<J-fi£0a, 


dt-d6-/j.£0a, 




L-GT7/-G0E, 


rt-0rj-G0£, 


dt-du-G0e, 




l-GTC)-VTai, 


Ti-dti-vTai, 


dt-du-vrat, 




l-gtll-go and 


TL-Oe-Go and tl- 


dt-do-Go and dl- 


d£tK-VV-G0, 


t-GTG), 


6ov, 


dov, 




l-GTa-Gdu, 


TL-Oe-Gdo, 


dt-d6-G0G), 


dElK-VV-G0O, 


1-gtcl-gOov, 


TL-Oe-Gdov, 


dt-do-G0ov, 


detK-w-odov, 


i-GTLL-G0G)V, 


Tt-0£-G0O)V, 


dt-do-G0G)v, 


dEtK-vv-cOuv, 


i-GTa-Gde, 


rt-0£-G0£, 


dt-do-G0e, 


d£tK-VV-G0£, 


I- gt<i-g6o)gclv & 


Ti-d£-G0G)Gav and 


dt-do-G0G)Gav and 


d£tK-VV-G0O)GaV 


L-GTCL-GdoV, 


Tt-0£-G0G)V, 


dt-d6-G0G)V, 


and detK-vv- 








G0CJV, 


VGTd-Gdai, 


rt-0£-G0at, 


dt-do-G0at, 


d£tn-vv-G0at, 


i-aru-/i£vog,7j, ov, 


rc-de-fiEvoe, rj, ov, 


dt-do-fievog, 7j,ov,\detK-vv-fJ.evoc, 7], 
1 ov. 



362 VERBS. 



PARADIGMS OF 



ACTIVE — Continued. 


uses. I 


o 


s 


a 

P 
J* 


2TA, place. 


BE, put. 


AO, give. 


AEIK, show. 


V 


1 




0) 
Oh 














S. 


1 


l-arn-v, 


E-TL-doVVj 


k-dl-dovv, 


E-dEtK-VVV, 








2 


l-GTTJ-g, 


E-TL-d£ig y 


k-dt-dovg, 


e-Selk-vvc, 


H 

_) 






3 


1-OT7J, 


E-TI-0EI, 


s-SC-doVj 


E-SSLK-VV, 






D. 


1 






si 






2 


l-cra-Tov, 


e-t'i-Oe-tov, 


E-dl-do-TOV, 


e-Selk-vv-tov. 


a, 






3 


i-GTa-TTjV, 


£-TL-d£-TJJVy 


E-dl-86-TTlV, 


t-dEiK-vv-rrjv. 






P. 


1 


l-GTd-fiev, 


E-TL-dE-flEV, 


E-di-do-flEV, 


E-SeLK-VV-flEV, 








2 


l-ara-Te, 


k-Tl-0£-TE, 


k-dl-do-re, 


s-SeLk-vv-te, 








3 


l-GTU-GCLVi 


k-rl-dE-Gav, 


k-di-do-Gav, 


k-detK-vv-aav. 


— 


d 

5 


S. 


I 


i-GTYj-V % I 


(e-Oq-v), ft 












2 


slood, 




. ill 










3 


e-GTTJ-C, 












D. 


1 


E-GT71, 


















e-6e-tov, 




wanting, 








2 


S-GTTJ-TOV, 


E-So-TOV, 










3 


i-GTTj-TnV, 


E-dE-TTjV, 


E-66-T7JV, 








P. 


1 


£-GT7]-/LL£V, 


E-dE-flEV, 


E-do-jusv, 










2 


e-GT7)-T£, 


E-Oe-TE, 


£-6o-T£, 










3 


S-GTTJ-GdV, 


e-Oe-gciv, 


£-do-GCLV, 








S. 


1 


GTai-rjv, 




doi-rjv, 










2 


GTal-nc, 




doi-nc, 










3 


GTCLL-Tj) 


-d-Ei-r], 


doi-7]. 






> 


D. 


1 
















2 


GTat-TJTOV, 


&£1-7}T0V, 


doi-TJTOV, 




H 


a. 




3 


GTdl-f/TTJV, 


d-EL-yrrjv, 


doi-rjT'nv, 






P. 


1 


Grat-rjfiev, 


-&EC-7J/LIEV, 


Sol-TJjUEV, 










2 


GT(ll-7}T£, 


d-EL-TjTE, 


6oL-7]TE, 




s 

a 






3 


gtcll-ev, 


&EL-EV, 


dol-EVj 




<: 




S. 


! 


GTLJ, 




dti, 








2 


GTftc, 


*%, 








> 




3 


GTTf, 










H 

o 


D. 


1 
















2 


GT7}-TOV, 


&7J-T0V, 


dti-rov, 










3 


GT7/-T0V) 


■&r r rov, 


SCj-tov, 






£> 


P. 


1 


Grio-fiev, 


d-U-jUEV, 


d(b-fI£V, 








2 


GT7}-T£, 


-d-fj-TE, 


dti-TE, 










3 


GTL)-Gl(v), 


-&U-Gi{v), 


6(0-Gl(v), 








S. 


2 


GTrj-dl, 


Vec (fr. M6l\ 


doc (fr. doOi), 






M 




3 


GTTJ-TUf 




66-tg), 






H 


D. 


2 


GT?]-TOV, 


■&E-TOV, 


66-tov, 










3 


GT7/-TG)V, 


-Se-tuv, 


dd-TCdv, 






a- 


P. 


2 


GTfj-TEy 


&E-TE, 


S6-TE, 










3 


GTTJ-TUGCLV 


"Q'E-TCdGCLv and 


do-TUGav and 












and ordvTov, 




dovruv, 





VERBS. 

VERBS IN MI. 



363 



MIDDLE— Continued. 



2TA, place. 



L-GTU-jLlTIV, 

t-ard-Go and 

L-GTG), 
GTCL-T0, 

i-ara-fiedoVy 
i-ora-cfioVi 
-ard-Gdyv, 
-ora-fieda, 
'.-cra-aBe, 

'.-GTQ-VTO, 



(k-GTU-flTjV iS 

found), 1 



not 



^GTd[-fir]v is not 
found), 2 



^GTu-fiai is not 
found), 3 



(gtu-go and gtu 
are not 
found), 4 



GE, put. 



e-tl-Oe-go and 

e-Ti-dov, 
e-ti-Oe-to, 
e-Tt-di-fzedov, 
e-tUOe-gOov, 
e-Tt-de-GdrjV, 
£-TL-de-/Lceda, 
k-rl-de-Gde, 

k-TL-0e-VTO, 



e-Oe-firjv, 

e-dov (fr. eOego), 

e-de-To, 

k-de-fiedoV) 

E-Oe-gOoV, 

e-Oe-gOtiVj 
E-6i-fiEda t 
e-Oe-gOe, 1 
e-Oe-vto, 



&01-/LL7JV, 

&0L-0, 

■&01-T0, 

&OI-/LLE0OV, 

d-OL-GdoV, 

■d-Ol-GdTJV, 

tioL-Ueda. 

t&ol-gOe, 

&01-VT0, 



deb-pat, 

&u-/lle6ov, 

d-rj-Gdov, 

drj-Gdov, 

$G)-jLl£da, 

$ri-Gde, 
■&C)-vrai, 



&ov (from 

-&E-G0G), 
■&E-G0OV, 
fi-E-GdoV, 

Vs-gOe, 

d-E-GduGdV 
-&£-GdcdV, 



-&EGO), 



and 



AO, give. 



£-6t-66fi7fv, 
E-61-do-ao and 

k-dc-dov, 
E-di-do-ro, 

E-6t-66-fJ.£60V, 

e-6c-6o-g6ov, 
E-6t-66-Gdjjv i 
£-dt-66-/x£6a, 
e-6l-6o'g6e, 

k-M-do-VTO, 



£-66-/Ll7jV, 

E-dov (fr. eSogo), 

E-So-TO, 

E-dd-jUEdoV, 
E-do-GdoV, 

k-do-Gdrjv, 
k-do-fiEda, 
e-oo-gOe, 

£-5o-VTO, 



Sol-flTjV, 

doi-o, 

dol-ro, 

dol-fiEdov, 

dot-GdoV, 

6oI-g6t}v } 
Soi-fiEda, 
Sol-gOe, 
Soi-vto, 



dcj-uat,, 
dti-rat, 

Scj-jUEdoV, 

6Cj-g6ov, 
dtj-Gdov, 
S6-fj.£da, 
ov-gOe, 



6ov (from Sogo), 

So-gOo, 

So-gOov, 

oo-gOcov, 

66-gOe, 

So-GdioGav and 
86-Gdov, 



AEIK, show. 



6£IK-VV-/LL7]V, 

SeIk-vv-go, 
-'5elk-vv-to, 

'-d£lK-VV-fl£d0Vj 

-deiK-vv-Gduv, 

■-dELK-VV-GdrjV, 
'dELK-VV-jLLEda, 
-dElfi-W-GdE, 

-SeIk-vv-vto. 



wanting, 



2. But 7zpL-a[/Li7]V, -aw, -airo, &c. 
4. But TrptaGo, or irplu. 



{. But E-TTTCL-jlTjV. 

3. But TTpt-u/uat, 



364 



VERBS, 
PARADIGMS OF 



ACTIVE — Continued. 



2TA, place. 



OTTj-Vat, 



gtuc, aaa, 
av, G. dvroc, 



0E, put. 



-del-vat, 



dele, elaa, ev, 
G. -d-evroc. 



AO, give. 



6ov- 



dovc, dovoa, 
6v, G. dovroc, 



AE1K, show. 



GT7J-G0), 



s-GTrj-oa, 



i-On-tca, e-Scj-kcl, 
for the dual and plural in 
dicative, and the other 
moods and participials, 
the 2d aor. is employed, 



£-GT7]-Ka, 

I stand. 



re-det-Ka, 



ds-dcj-Ka, 



e-GTrj-Kstvand 

EL-GTTJ-KEIV, 



€-Te-6et-K£LV, 



k-de-dtJ-Kstv, 



e-ds-deL^etv, 



E-GT^G), Old 

Att. 



wanting, 



wanting, 



wanting, 



PASSIVE 



Aorist 1. \£-GTa-dr]v, \k-TE-6rjv, \e-66-67jVy | s-dEix-drjv, 1 



REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS. 

1. The verbs dvva/iat. lean ; kmoTafiai, I know ; Kpipafiat, I hang ; 
and npiaadatj to buy, have an accentuation differing from that of 
iarafiat in the present optative and subjunctive, namely, optative 
dwacfinv, EiuGTaifinv, euo, at.ro, atG0ov, atcde, atvro. So, also, bva't- 
[irjv, ato, atro : subjunctive dvvoftat, kiriGTufiai, y, nrai, ncdov, node, 
uvrat. 

2. The middle optative-forms of the present and second aorist in 
oi, as Tidoifinv, -&OL/LLVV, are preferred to those in u ; as, TiQti^nv y 

ElOy ELTOy &C. ; -d-EL/LLT/V, £10, EtTO, &C. 



VERBS. 365 

VERBS IN MI. 





MIDDLE— 


-Continued. 




2TA, place. 


9E, put. 


AO, give. 


AEIK, show. 


{ard-Gdat), 1 




66-cdaiy 




(Grd-fj.Evoc), 2 


$e-fievoc, n, ov, 


66-uevoc, 7], ov, 




GT7]-G0jXaL, 


'O'TJ-GOjUaL, 


ScJ-GOjLLat, 


At / yr\ 1 1 n 1 

utcguuutj 


k-GT7]-Gdfi7}V, 


(s-dv-Kd-finv, 
for these the 
aorist 2d m 


(e-do-icd-finv), 
Attics used the 
ddle, 


E-dett;d/Lt7]V, 


S-GTU-fiai, 


re-dec-fiai, 


de-do-juaL, 


de-det-y-fj.aL, 


E-GTU-/J,7}V, 


k-TS-del-flTJVf 


e-de-do-fivv, 




S-GTrj^OfiaL, 


wanting, 


wanting, 


wanting, 


PASSIVE. 


Future I. 


GTCL-OyGOflttl, 


\T£-0r)Oo/Liai, 


dEix-OrjaofiaL. 



3. The perfect and pluperfect, egttjkq,, egt^keiv (not eigti]kelv), 
form the dual and plural immediately from the stem, namely, e-gtu- 
tov, %-GTa-/j,ev, s-Grd-re, e-gto, gl(v) : pluperf. e-gtu-tov, E-Grd-rrjV, 
e-G7d-fj,£v, s-Grd-re, e-gtcL-gclv . — EGT&vdi is regularly used instead of 
iGTTjfCEvat. — The participle appears in the form egtuc, uGa, uc, gen. 
cjroc, 6gtjc, uroc, as well as egtvk^c, via, 6c, gen oroc, viae, oroc. 

4. The forms of the imperfect, krldovv, eic, el, hdidovv, ovc, ov, are 
formed according to the conjugation in ecj and 6o. The other forms, 
krldnv, rjc, rj, eSIScjv, ue, o, are not used. 



1. But TrplaGdat. 



Hh2 



2. But irpidfiEVog. 



366 



VERBS. 



SURVEY OF VERBS IN MI. 

A. Verbs in which join the Personal Endings imme- 
diately on to the Stem-vowel. 

1. Kl-xprj-fiL, I lend, I let out ; (XPA-), Kcxpdvat, fut. XPV G0) , &c. — 
Mid., to borrow : fut. xpfaoftai, (aor. expnGu/Linv is not used by the At- 
tics in this sense). To the same stem belong, 

2. Xprj, oportet (root XPA- and XPE-) : subj. xpV • infin. xp^ val : 
part, (to) XP £ uv : imperf. hxpfjv, or XPU V opt. X? tLr l (from XPE-) ; and, 

3. 'Anoxpv, it is sufficient, formed regularly from XPA £2 : anox- 
ptiGcv, infin. anoxpfiv : imperf. a,7Texpv '• aor. a7rexpnGe(v), &c. — Mid., 
aEOxp&fiat, I have enough : dizoxpfiGdai, like jpao^at. 

4. 'OvLvnfti, I benefit ('ON A), bvivdvai : imperf. act. wanting : fut. 
bvrjGCd : aor. covrjGa. — Mid., bvlva/iat, I have advantage : fut. bvyGopai : 
2d aor. lovrifinv, tjgo, tjto, &c. : imper. ovtjgo : part. ovrj/Ltevoc : opt. 
bvalfznv, ato, airo : infin. ovaadat : aor. pass, cjvrjdnv, instead of hvri- 
(inv. — -The other forms are supplied by cofeleiv. 

5- Iii-[JL-Tz7i7j-fJLL, I fill (IIAA-), 7rtfiiT?idvat : imperf. eTVL/nrlnv : fut. 
TcTirjOU : 1st aor. enT^rjaa. — Mid., TctfinTiafiaL, izLfiTrTiaadai'. imperf. kniju- 
izTidfinv : perf. mid. or pass. 7re7r%7]Guai : 1st aor. pass. kn'ArjGdnv. — 
Mid. 

Remark. The /i in the reduplication of this and the following 
verb falls away if a [l comes before the reduplication in com- 
position ; as, e/LLTTinXafiaty but eveni/xirTiuixnv. , 

6. nifnrpvfu, I burn, transitive, exactly like iri/Lnrhnfii. 

7. TAH-MI, I bear, pres. and imperf. wanting (instead of these, 
vTTOfiivu and dvixofiat are employed) : 2d aor. erlnv, rlainv, Tlfjdi, 
rTi&e : fut. rhyGOftai : perf. TerhvKa. 

8. ^rjiii, I say (stem $A-), has the following formation : 



VERBS. 



367 



Paradigm of the Verb (frrj^L, I say. 





Present. 


ACTIVE. 




Imperfect. 


Indic.< 


r s. 1 

2 
3 

D. 2 
3 

P. 1 
2 

I 3 


(py?, 

(p7}Gt(v), 
(pUTOV, 

(pdrov, 
(pafiEV, 
(pare, 

(pdGt(v), 


Indic. < 


($. 1 
2 
3 

D. 2 

P. 1 
2 

I 3 


£(prjV, 

e<j>nc, usually efojodoy 

£(pdTOV, 
£(paT7]V, 

E(pap,ev, 

£(pare, 

mdoav. 


Opt. 

Subj. 
Imper. 

Infin. 
Part. 
Fut. 


(palnv, (paiyc, (pain, (palyp.ev and 6alp,Ev, (painre and (poire, 
(pcuev. 

(pco, (prjc, (by, (prjrov, (pufiev, ofjre, <pci)oi(v). 

(pd-OL or <pa-di, <parco, (purov, daruv, (pare, (pdro)Gav, and (pdv- 

TG)V. 

(pavai. 

(hag, (pacta, (pdv, gen. (pdvroc, (pacrjc;, &c. 
67/00 : 1st Aor. e(p7]oa. 


Perf. Imper. 


MIDDLE. 

TTE(pd(jdtj, let it be said. — 


Verbal adject. <par6c, (pariog. 



Remark 1. In the second person, <pyc, both the accentuation 
and i subscribed are contrary to all analogy. 

Remark 2. This verb has a double signification : 1. To say, 
in general. 2. To affirm (aio), to assert, to advance, to assent, &c. 
The future frjaa, however, has only the latter signification ; the 
former was expressed by Ae£a>. kpti. — The imperfect £(pnv, with 
<pdvat and (pdc, is used aoristically. 

To the verbs already given the following deponents should be 
added : 

1. "kyafiai, I admire ; imperf. qydfirjv : 1st aor, rjyaGQnv : fut. dyd- 
cofiat. 

2. Avvafiat, I can, dvvacrat, dvvarai, &c. ; opt. dvvaifinv, dvvcao, 
Svvairo, &c. ; subj. ovvoptat : imper. dvvaao : infin. dvvaodai : part. 
Svvdfievog : imperf. kdvvdfinv and qdwd/inv, kdvvu, &c. : fut. dvvri- 
oofiai : 1st aor. pass, edvvrjdnv and Tjdvvfjdrjv, and ifivvdodnv : perf. 
dEdvvrjpat. — Verbal adjective, dvvarog, possible and powerful. 

3. 'JSmorafiai, I know, kmaTaoat, &c. ; opt. £7TtGTaipnv, hmaraio^ 
&c. ; subj. kntGTUfiai : impcrat. ettlgtu, &c. ; imperf. qTUGrdfinv, 
TjizLGTC), &c. ; fut. emorf/Go/iai : 1st aor. qmGTTjdnv. — Verbal adjective, 
kntGrnrGc. 

4. 'Epafzat, I love. — epdcj is used for it in prose, in the present and 
imperfect ; 1st aor. ypdodr/v, amam : fut. kpaodijGOfiai, amabo. 



368 



VERBS. 



5. Kpefia/Liai, I hang ; opt. KpefiaCfinv, aio, cllto : sulj. Kpefiofiai : 
imperf. kxpefid/urjv : 1st aor. eKpeiidodrjv : fat. Kpep-ijaofiai, pendebo. 

6. Uptaadai, to buy ; defective : 1st aor. mid. eKpidunv, which the 
Attics used instead of the aorist of uveopai, namely, eovrjodpTjv : 
subj. TrpLtdfAcu, : opt. TrptalfnjVy ato, ollto : imper. rzpiaao or irpto : part. 
7rpid(ievog. 



VERBS IN e. 



I. l-7)-\Li (stem f E-), / send. Many forms of this verb 
are found only in composition. 



ACTIVE. 


Pres. 


Ind. L7)fU, Irjg, "aqatiy) : lerov ; lefiev, lere, iuGi(v) or ieiaiiy) : 
opt. ieinv. 

Subj. Icb, lyg, ly : ijjrov : l&fiev, lyre, i&cn(v) : dpiCb, dfptyg, 
&c. 

Imper. (leOt) let, iero, &c. : inf. isvai : part. ie£g, iei&a, lev. 


Imperf. 


Ind. low (from 1EQ), d<j)tovv or rjfytovv (seldom l€iv), letg, 
let : lerov, ierrjv : tepev, lere, "tecav. 


Perf. eha : pluperf. e "uteiv : fut. you : aorist 1 yfca. 


Aor. 2. 


Ind. sing, is supplied by aor. 1 : D. elrov, etrrjv : P. etpev, 
Kadec/xev, eire, dvelre, e'taav, d(f>etaav : subj. 6), d(p£), 
i/g, &c. : opt. elTjv, elrjQ, eljj : elrov, etrrjv : eijiev, eire, 
elev : imper. eg, dtpeg, eru : erov, erov : ere, erucrav 
and evrov : inf. eivat, dfetvai : part, elg, eiaa, ev, G. 
evrog, elorjg, ddevrog. 


MIDDLE. 


Pres. 


Ind. le/uat, leaat, terat, &c. : opt. lotfinv (ietfirjv) : subj. 
itifiai, d(pttip,ai, if/, dtytfj, &c. : imper. leao or lov : inf. 
leadac : part, iejuevog, n, ov. 


Imperf. 


Ufirjv, leao, &c. 


Aor. 2. 


Ind. elpr}v : subj. tdfiat, dfytiiiat, rj, d(pr/, rjrat, (Hjyrjrai : 
eiao, d(j>elGo : opt. npootprjv, oto, olro, oifieda. &c. : 
elro, dtyetro : imper. ov, eadcj, &c. : 
elpeBa, &c. : inf. eodat • part, epevog, n, ov. 


Perf. elpat, fiedelfiat : inf. eiadai, pedelodai : pluperf. elfinv, eivo, 
atyelco, &c. : fut. yeo/uai : aor. 1 #/ca/^i> only in the ind., and 
that very seldom. 


PASSIVE. 


Aor 1 eldr,v : part. kQeiq : fut. kdr}ao\iai. Verbal adjective, erog, 

kreog (dcberng). 



VERBS. 



369 



II. Ef/w (stem / am, has the following paradigm : 



PRESENT. 



1 

2 
3 
2 
3 
P, 1 
2 
3 



elfic, I am, 
el, 

egt'l, 

EGTOV, 

egtov, 

EGTE, 

elgl(v), 



OPTATIVE. 



EiVV, 

eIjj, 

eItJTOV, 

elt/ttjv, 

ElTJflEV (ElflEv). 
ELTjTE (SITE), 

£C7jaav and ) 

eIeV, ) 



f' 

TJTOV, 

fjtov, 

dfXEV, 
fjTE, 

ugi(v), 



IMPERATIVE. 



IgOl, Infinitive. 
£GTG) y slvai, 
egtov, Participle. 
eGtov, uv, ovGa, bv, 

gen. ovtoc, ovG7]d 
ovtoc, &c, 
EGTuGav, more rarely egtcjv, | 



still more rarely ovtov. 
indie. EGOfiat, egel, Igtcu,&c., 
optat. EGoifXTjv , olo, oZto, &c., 
infin. EGEGdai, 
part. EGOfisvoc. 



Imperf. 
Indic. 





1 


2 




3 


D. 


2 




3 


P. 


1 




2 




3 



rjg or rjGda, 
ijv, 

fjTOV Or 7JGT0V, 
f)TTjV Or 7]GT7)V, 
TjflEV, 

7}TE Or 7}GTE, 
TJGttV, 



Fat. 
Fat. 
Fiit, 
Fut, 



III. Efyu (stem 'I-), I go, has the following paradigm : 



PRESENT. 


S. 1 
2 
3 

D. 2 
3 

P. 1 
2 
3 


INDIC. 


OPTATIVE. 


SUBJ. 


IMPERATIVE. 




djii, I go, 

EC, 

eIgl{v), 
LTOV, 
LTOV, 
LflEV, 

Its, 

LdGl{v), 


loLfu or ioinv, 

LOLC, 

lot, | 

LOLTOV, 
LOLTTJV, 
loiflEV, 
LOLTE, 

tOLEV, 


Id, 

Ivtov, 

L7JTOV, 
lUflEV, 

Ivte, 
h)Gi(v), 


Wl, 
ltd), 
LTOV, 
LTUV, 

ITS, 

IrtdGav or ) 
lovtuv, S 


Infinitive. 
iivat, 

Participle. 
I6v, covGa, lov, 
gen. iovroc, Iovgvc, 

LOVTOg. 


Imperf. Indic. < 


( S. 1 
2 
3 

D. 2 
3 

P. 1 
2 

I 3 


ysiv or ya, 
yEie " yEiGda, 

yEiTov or yrov, 
yslrvv li yrnv, 
yeifiEv " yfiEV, 

yELTE " yTE, 

ysGav. 



Remark. The present of stye, I go, principally in the indica- 
tive, but also in the infinitive and participle, has the signification 
of the future in the Ionic and Attic dialects ; especially in the 
latter, namely, / shall go or come. Hence the present is sup- 
plied by Epxofiat. 



370 



B. Verbs in-fii which affix the Personal Endings, after the 
addition of the syllable vvv or vv to the Stem-vowel. 

Tense-formation of Verbs whose Stem ends in a, e, o, and those 
whose Root ends in a Liquid. 

(A.) Verbs with a Stem ending in a, e, o. 



Voice. 


Tense. 


c stem in. t?. 


b. stem m £. 


c. stem in o(ct))« 


Act. <( 


r Pres., 
Impf., 
Perf., 
Plup., 
Fut., 

1 Aor., 


GKedd-vuv-'fLi^ 
k-OKedd-vvv-v, 1 
e-OKeda^tca y 
k-OKeda-KELVy 

Att. (JKedu, -de, -a, 
k-OKedd*oa, 


KOpE-WV-flL, 1 
E-KOpE'VVV-V, 1 
KE-KOpE-KCl, 
E-KE-KOpE-KElV, 

KOp£-GG), 
Att. KOpCd, -ELCy -EL, 
E-KOpE-Ga, 


GTpU-VVV-flLy 1 
E-GTpU-VVV-V, 1 
E-GTpU-KCL, 
£-GTpd)-KElV, 

GTptJ-GD, 

£-GTpG)-G(l, 


Mid. < 


f Pres., 
Impf., 
Perf, 
Plup., 
Fut., 
Aor., 


(TKedwvpv-fiaL, 
€-GKeda-vvv-/u7]v, 
k-GKida-a-uat, 
h-unedd-G-firjv, 


KOpE-VVV-fLai, 
E-KOpE~VVV-U7]V, 
KE-KOpe-G-jLMLL, 
E-KE-KOp£-G-fl7jV, 
KOpE'G-OjUaiy 
E-KOpE-G-dfirjV, 


GTptJ-VPV*[iaL, 
£-GTp(0*WV-IJ,71V, 

E-GTpu-fiat, 

E-GTpd)-fM]Vy 




LFut.3, 




KE-KOpE-G-OfldL, 




Pass. • 


; Aor., 
Fut., 


k-Gtczdd-G-drjv, 
GKeda-G-di]GO- 

/LLCLL, 


E-KQpE-G-drjV, 
KOpE-G-BfjGO- 
jUCLL, 


E-Grp6-6/]v, 
GTpu-O^GOfzat, 


Verb, adj., 


GK€da-G-TOC, 
G Ke6(1- G*TEO£. 


KOpE-G-TOg, 
KOpE-G-TEOC 


GTpU-TOg, 
GTpU-TEOC. 



(B.) Verbs with a Stem ending in a Consonant. 



Present, 

Imperfect, 
Perfect 1, 

Perfect 2, 
Pluperf. 1, 
Pluperf. 2, 
Future, 
Aorist 1, 


bA-?.v-/xt, 2 perdo, 

uA-Av-v,* 
bA-uA£-tia ('OAE 

oA-wX-a, periiy 
bA- gj Ae-keiv, pen 
oA-uA-elv, perier 
bA-u, etf, &C. 

U?iE-GCLy 


6A-Av*{iaiy 
pereo, 

G)A-?\,V-/U7}Vy 

perdidiy 

liderarriy 
amy 

bA-ovfiaiy ely 
A. 2, 6)A-6fX7]Vy 


OfJL-VV-flLy^ 
U/jL-VV-Vy 2 

b(i-6fio-Ka 
('QMOa), 

OfZ-OflO-KELV, 

bfi-ovfiac, ec, 
6/io-Ga, 
Aor. 1, pass 
Fut. 1, pass 


bu-vv-fiaiy 

COfl-VV-jLLIJVy 
G/bL-C0jLLO-G-fiaL, 

Ofl-0)fi6-G-fl7JVy 

COfjLO-GdflTJVy 

. idjib-drjVy 

. O/LlodTjGOfiat. 



Remark. *0?>Avfit arises by assimilation from oA-w-fu. — For 
an example of a stem ending in a mute, see Seikvv/lll above, 
among the paradigms. — The participle perfect, middle or pass* 



1. And GKEda-vvvo, e-gkeSu-vvvov — Kops-vvvo), s-Kopi-vvvov — orpw- 
vvvo), £-GTpu-vwov (t> always short). „ 

2. And bAAv-Wy uAAv-ov — bfivv+Oy upM-ov (v every where). 



VERBS. 



371 



ive, of 0/j.vv/zL is 6/j,g)/j,og{ievoc. The other forms of the perfect 
and pluperfect, as well as the first aorist passive, are usually 
without the a among the Attics ; as, opufiorat, o/iuhoto. 



SURVEY OF VERBS BELONGING TO THESE TWO 
CLASSES. 

The stem ends, 

(A.) In a vowel j and takes -vvv. 

1. In a. 

\. Kepd-vvv-fu, I mix ; fut. KEpuGo, Attic Kspu : 1st aor. eKepdaa : 
perf. act. Ketcpdtca : perf mid. or pass. KEKpdfiat : 1 St aor. pass, e/cpa- 
Qr\v, also ktcepaodrjv. — Mid. 

2. Kpefid-vvv-/xc, I hang, transitively ; fut. tcpEfiaGCJ, Attic KpEfiti : 
1st aor. hupefidaa : mid. or pass. KpEp.dvvvu.ai, I hang myself, or am 
hanged (but KpEfj.dp.aL, I hang, intransitive) : fut. pass. Kp£/j,aGdr/Gop,aL : 
1st aor. pass. sKpsfidaOnv, I was hanged, or I hung, intransitive. 

3. TLerd-vvv-fiL, I spread out, I open ; fut. 7tetugg), Attic itstC) : perf. 
mid. or pass. TtEKTdpai: 1st aor. pass. eirerdoOnv. 

4. SKedd-vvv-fu, I scatter ; fut. gkeSugcj, Attic gkeSw : perf mid. or 
pass. EGnidaafiai : 1st aor. pass. kGneddcdnv. 

2. In e. 

1. "E-vvv-fii, I clothe, in prose dju<pLivvvfiL. Imperf. without aug- 
ment ; fut. dfi<f)LEGo) : 1st aor. TJiKpieaa : perf. mid. or pass. y/MpieGfiai, 
rju<pieGai, rjfi^ieGrai, &c. : infin. fyuptEGdat : fut. mid. diMfriEGopai. (For 
augment, vid. page 273.) 

2. Ze-vvv-/j.i, I boil, transitive ; fut. £egu : 1st aor. e&gcl : perf 
mid. or pass. E^eGfiac : 1st aor. pass. k^EGdnv. — on the contrary, 
usually intransitive.) 

3. KopE-vvv-fii, I satiate ; fut. KopEG^, Attic Kopu : 1st aor. EKopEGa : 
perf. mid. or pass. KEKopsGjuat : 1st aor. pass. EKopsGdnv. — Mid. 

4. I,6e-vvv-{ii, I quench; fut. g^ego : 1st aor. egSegci, I quenched; 
2d aor. pass. egSvv, I went out, or I was extinguished : perf. £G6i}Ka, I 
am gone out, or quenched : perf. mid. or pass egSeg/hcll : 1st aor. pass. 
egSegOtjv. Besides this verb there is no other in -vvvfii with a sec- 
ond aorist. 

5. ^TopE-vvv-fiL, I spread forth ; shortened GTopvvpi : fut. gtopegcd, 
Attic GTopco : 1st aor. EGropEGct. The remaining tenses from GTpd>v- 
vvizc : EGTpufiai, EGTpudnv, &c. — Verbal adjective, GTpuroc. 



372 VERBS. 

3. Ira o, which, however, is lengthened into cj. 

1. Z6-vvv-[ii, I gird ; fut. £6au : 1st aor. efaaa : jper/- rm ^- or pass, 
l^ua^ai. — Mid. 

2. 'Pu-vvv-iLU, I strengthen ; fut. f)6ocj : 1st aor. Zpfjiocra : perf. mid. 
or pass, epfiufiai : perf. imper. mid. or pass, fpfitooo, vale ; inf hpfrua- 
6ac : 1st aor. pass. ippuadnv. 

3. ^Tp6-vvv-fit, I spread forth; fut. orpuacd: 1st aor. ecrpuaa, &c. 
See oropivvvfii. 

4. Xp6-vvv-fzc, I color ; fut. xp&cu : 1st aor. $xP U(ja: perf. mid. 
or pass. kexp^I^cll. 

(B.) The Stem ends in a Consonant , <mc? takes vv. 

1. *Ay-vv-/u, I break ; fut. ago : 1st aor. eaga : infin. d^at : 2d perf, 
lay a, I am broken ; 2d aor. pass, hayrjv. (For augment, vid. page 
267.)— Mid. 

2. Elpy-vv-fii or elpyo, I shut in; fut. elptjo) : 1st aor. eZpfa. (But 
e/'pyw, eipgo, elp%a, with the soft breathing, I shut out.) 

3. Zevy-vv-fit,, I join ; fut. frvt-co : 1st aor. E&vga : perf. mid. or 
pass, s^evyftai : 1st aor. pass. h&vxQnv : 2d aor. pass, k^vyyv. 

4. Mly-vv-fit, I mix ; fut. fil^co : 1st aor. efii^a: infin. pl^ai : perf. 
fiejLuxa : perf mid. or pass, fxefity/iai : 1st aor. pass, kfitxdnv : 2d aor. 
pass. kjLuyrjv : fut. perf fie/xi^o/Lcai. 

5. Oly-vv-fii or otyw, in prose avoiyvvfic or dvoiyu, I open ; itnperf 
dveuyov : fut. clvol^o) : 1st aor. dvecj^a, dvotijai : perf. 1 dvew^a, J have 
opened ; perf 2 aveuya, I stand open ; for which the Attics use dvecpy- 
fiac : 1st aor. pass, aveux^nv : infin. dvoixOrjvai. (For augment, vid. 
page 268.) 

6. 'Ojuopy-vv-fjLi, I wipe off; fut. bfiop^o) : 1st aor. &uopi-a. — Mid. 

7. "Op-vv-fii, I stir up; fut. opao) : 1st aor. cjpca. — Mid. opvvfiai, I 
rouse myself, I rise ; fut. bpovfiai : 2d aor. cjpSfzyv. 

8. Uijy-vv-fii, I fasten ; fut. TTrj^a) : 1st aor. sirnZa : perf. 1 ninnxa : 
perf. 2 irenriya, I stand fast. — Mid. irrjyvvfiai, I continue to stick ; perf 
TrETzrjyfxai, I stand fast; 2d aor. pass, hnayrjv. — Mid. 

9. 'Vrjy-vv-fj.L, I tear ; fut. fir/fa : 1st aor. eppvga : perf. 2 eppcoya, I 
am torn ; 2d aor. pass, hppaynv : 2d fut. pass. fiayrjco/LiaL. 



Inflection of the two Perfects tcelfiai and r\\mi. 

1. Kecpai, I lie down. 
Kel/iat, properly, I have laid myself I am lain down, hence I lie 
down, is a perfect without reduplication. 

Perf. indie. KelfiaL, nelaai, KEtrai, Kelfiedov, nelodov, Keladov, Kel/ie- 



VliRBfci. 



373 



6a< keToQe, Ktlvrai : optative Keoifirjv, keolo, keolto, &c. : sub- 
junctive Kiufiai, Kerj 1 KsrjTai, &c : imperative keIgo, Keio6(o } 
&c. : part, keluevoc. 
Pluperf. indie, ekel^ltjv, Zkeigo, eKelto, &c. : 3d pi. ekelvto. 
Future indie, kelcjo/xcll. 
Compounds, avdiceifiai, KaruKEtfiaty KaTdneujai, &c. : infin. Kara-* 
KEiodai : imper. kcltclkelgO) £}-kec<70. 

2. r R[iaL ) I sit. 

1. y Ufiat, properly, 1 have set myself. I have been set, hence I sit, is 
a perfect belonging to the poetical active form of the aorist eiaa, I 
did set, I founded. The stem is 'HA-. (Compare yc-rat, instead of 
7/d-Tcu, and the Latin sed-eo.) 

Perf. indie, jjfiat, 7]aac, Tjotai, rjfjiEdov, yadov, jjadov, i'/fieda, tjcOe, 

yvrat : imper. rjao, rjodu, &e. : infin. rjodat : part. rjfiEvog. 
Pluperf. rjfirjv, rjao, tjgto, rjfiedov, rjcdov, ycdrjv, r/fiEOa, rjaOe, fjvro, 

2. Instead of the simple verb, the compound ndd-nfiac is used in 
prose, the inflection of which varies from that of the above in never 
taking the a in the third person singular of the perfect ; nor in the 
pluperfect, unless it has the temporal augment. Thus, 

Perf. tcaOvfiac, nadncai, fcdBnrac : ope. nadoCfinv, kuOoio, nadoiTo, 
&C. : subj. KaOofiat, K<16y, KuOnrai, &C. : imper. Kadnco : infin. 
Kadijadat : part. KaOrjfiEVog. 

Pluperf. EKaQfjfirjv and Ka6f]firjv, EKadrjoo and Kadfjao : EKadnro and 
Kadrjoro, &c. 

Remark. The deficient forms of rj^iai are supplied by E&oQai 
or l&odai (in prose Kadi^EaBat, KaBlfroBai). 

Verbs in o which follow the Analogy of Verbs in in 
the 2d Aorist Active and Middle. 

1. Several verbs, with the characteristic a, e, o, v, form a second 
aorist active and middle, after the analogy of the formation in -fit, 
inasmuch as it is without a mood- vowel, and, consequently, joins the 
personal endings immediately on to the stem. All the other forms 
of these verbs follow the formation in w. 

2. The formation of this second aorist active agrees with that of 
the second aorist of verbs in through all the moods and par- 
ticipials. The characteristic vowel is almost universally lengthen- 
ed, as in eottjv, namely, a into rj, e into n, o into o, and v into v, and 
remains, as in eotvv, through the whole of the indicative, impera- 
tive, and infinitive. The imperative ending in -ifii is also shortened 
into a in composition ; as, irp66d instead of irpoSndc. 



374 



VERBS. 



Moods and 
Persons. 


a. charac. a. 
I walk, I go. 


b. charac. s. 

oSivvvui, 
I quench. 


c. charac. o. 

TNO-ft, 
yi-yvu)GK(j), 
I know. 


d. charac. v. 
I wrap up. 


Indic. S. 1 

2 
3 

D. 2 
3 

P. 1 
2 
3 


e-6tj-v, I went, 
s-6n, 

£-6?]-T0V, 

t-Srj-Triv, 
£-6v-/j,ev, 
e-6rj-Te, 
E-6n-Gav, 


egStjv, I was 
extinguished, 
fcSrjc;, 
eo6n, 

£G6r]T0V, 

eoSrjrnv, 

£G&7)fl£V, 

egStjte, 
eaBnaav, 


ejvcjv, I knew, 

Zyvog, 

Eyvurov, 
kyvojrnv, 

EyVUflEV, 
EyVOTE, 

h/vuaav, 


e6vv, I dipped 
in, intrans., 
fdvg, 
e6v, 
eSvtov, 
kdvrnv, 
eSv/uev, 
eSvte, 
Edvaav, 


Opt. S. 1 
2 
3 

D. 2 
3 

P. 1 

2 
3 


flalng, 
/lain, 

j3alnrov and 

alrov, 
paLrjrnv and 

alrnv, 
(3atn/bLev and 

alfiev, 
(iainre and 

aire, 
f3at£v, 


adelnv, 
oBelnc, 
edeln, 

gBelvtov and 

elrov, 
aSetrjrrjv and 

ELTT/V, 

o6eLn[i£v and 

elfjiev, 
aBetnre and 

elte, 
gSelev, 


yvoinv, 
yvoing, 
yvoln, 

yvoinrov and 

OLTOV, 

yvoirjrnv and 

OLTTjV, 

yvotn/LLEv and 

OL(jL£V, 

yvolnrE and 

OLTE, 
yVOLEV, 




Subj. S. 

D. 
P. 


fa, /%, Pv * 

(3?]tov, 
(3£)/iev, 7jTS, 

G)GL(v), 


g6u, yg, y, 1 
gS^tov, 

g66)[1£V, T]T£, 

£)gl(v), 


yvcj, yv&g, 

yvG), 1 
yvuTov, 

yvtiflEV, C)TE, 

£)<jl(v), 


Svg), yg, y, 1 
dvr/Tov, 

SVCO/LIEV, 7]T£, 
G)Gl(v), 


Impr. S. 
D. 
P. 2 

q 


firjTQV, TJTQV, 
firjTE, 

pfjTDGciv and 
fiavruv, 


oStjtov, tjtuv, 
g6F/te, 

g67jto)gg,v and 
gSevtuv, 


yvudi, uro), 2 
yvtirov, uruv, 
yvuTE, 

yvo)TG)<7a.v and 
yvovTcov, 


dvdc, VTCJ, 2 
dvrov, VTOV, 
dvre, 

ovt(j)gclv and 
dvvrov, 


Infinitive 




a6f/vat, 


yvtovat, 


dvvai, 


Participle 


(Sac, aaa, uv, 
G. ftdvrog, 


odslg, Eiaa.EV, 
G. cSevtoc, 


yvovg,ovGa,6v, 
G. yvovrog, 


dvg, VGa y vv, 
G. dvvrog. 



Remark. The optative form 6m/v, instead of Svtnv, is not 
found in the Attic dialect. The second aorist middle is found 
in ordinary language only in a few verbs ; as, nhonai, Tzpiaa- 
6ac, &c. 



Besides the verbs already given, a few others follow this forma- 
tion ; as, 

1. AtdpaGKU, I run away ; 2d aor. act. (APA-) fdpdv, -dg, -d, -drov, 



1. Compounds ; as, dvaScj, ava6fjg, &c. ; clttogBl) : dtayvu : avadvu. 

2. Compounds ; as, dvdSqdi, dvdSd, dvd&jTE : u7TOG6n6i : dtdyvodi, : 
avddvQi. 



VERBS. 



375 



*&Ttfv, -djtffy, -tire, -ticav : opt. dpalnv : subj. dpti, dppc, Spcl, dparov, 
dparov, dpupev, Spare, 6pu>Gi(v) : imper. dpadi, -dro : infin. dpavac : 
part. dp&c, *uGa, dv. 

2. Hetopat, I fly ; 2d aor. enrnv (IITA-) : inf. irrjjvat : part, nrac. 

3. 2/ce/Uw, or gkeTlecj, I dry ; 2d aor. (2KAA-) egkatjv, I wither, 
intransitive : inf. GKXijvai : opt. GKkalnv. 

4. Qdd-vtj, I get before; 2d aor. icpdnv, tydfjvaL, <pOdg, (f)6alnv } (j>dti. 

5. AidaGKG), I teach ; 2d aor. (AAE-) kddnv, I learned ; but 1st aor. 
i:dlda%a, I taught. 

6. Kcw, I" burn, transitive ; 2d aor. (KAE-) BKanv, I burned, in- 
transitive ; bat 1st aor. zKavoa, transitive. 

7. 'Pew, I flow ; 2d aor. (TYE-) eppvnv, I flowed. 

8. Xatpco, I rejoice ; 2d aor. (XAPE-) ex&pnv. 

9. 'ATilcFKOfiat ; 2d aor. ( f AAO-) ^"kuv : Attic id/icjv (vid. page 268). 

10. Bi6w, I live ; 2d aor. eSlcjv : opt. (3l6tjv (not fliotnv, like yvoinv) : 
subj. /?tw, -w, &c. : infin. fiiuvat : part, fiiovc. But this form of 
the participle is not used, and fiiuaac, 1st aor. part., takes its place. 

« — The present and imperfect are little used by the Attics, and in- 
stead of these they employ fw, which, on the other hand, borrows 
the remaining tenses from (3i6co ; thus, pres. £w : imperf. I£wv : fut. 
(3i6(jo{iai : 2d aor. eBicov : perf. /3e6to)Ka : part. j3e6i6fiEvoc. 

11. $vo, 1 bring forth; 2d aor. e6vv, I arose, I sprang from, <j>vvat, 
fpve : opt. is wanting in the ordinary language : subj. <f>vo) : 1st aor. 
tyvaa, I brought forth: fut. <pvGU), I shall bring forth : perf. netyvna, I 
have arisen, or become, I am, &c. — Mid., pres. tyvofiat : fut. <}>vGOfiai. 



Olda (stem EIA-, video)^ I know. 



PERFECT. 


S. 1 
2 
3 

D. 


Indicative. 
olda, 
olada, 
olde(v), 

LGTOV, LGTOV, 


Optat. 

eideinv, 
eldElnc, 
eldeiij, 
e16el?]Tov, 


'Subjunctive. 

el6C), 

EcSyc, 

sidy, 

Et6f]T0V, -7JT0V, 


Imperative. 
lg6l, 

LGTCO, 

LGTOV, LGTCJV, 


Infinitive. 

eldevai. 

Participle. 
Eiduc, -via, 6c, 


P. 1 
2 
3 


LGflEV, 

LGTE, 

lGdGl(v), 


? -r/rnv, 
EcSslnpLEV, 

EldEirjTE, 

elSelev, 


ElSfifiEV, 
EldfjTE, 

e16C)Gl(v), 


lore, 

IGTCOGaV. 




PLUPERFECT. 


1 

Ind. 2 
3 


S. ydeiv, Attic ySn, D. , 

ydEic, ydeiGda, and Att. ydrjGda, ydetrov, 
ydsi, Att. ySn, ydslrnv, 


P. ydei/LtEv, 
ydeire, 
ydEGav. 


Future elaofiai, I shall know or experience. 



876 



VERBS. 



DIALECTS OF THE VERB. 
1. Augment and Reduplication. 

1. The Epic language, and also the Ionic prose i have the privilege 
allowed them of dropping the augment ; as, Tivge, arzikavro, fticavi 
opuro, e?ie, &c. The same liberty is conceded to the unattic poets, 
according to the exigencies of the verse. The Ionic prose, more- 
over, can reject the augment of the perfect ; as, dfi/xai, Epyacfiai, 
ohn/Ltai, which the Epic language is accustomed to do only in uvuya, 
and in epxatac, from elpyu. 

2. The digammated verbs in Homer regularly take the syllabic aug- 
ment ; as, dvddvo), imperf. sdvdavov, 2d aor. eadov. — -'Eldofiai, 1st aor. 
hicrapnv, and so even in the participle eeLeafievoc. — The e appears to 
be lengthened, for the sake of the verse, in eloiKvta, and in evade 
(t\Fade), from dvddvo. 

3. The verbs oivoxoeu and dvddvo take, in Homer, the syllabic 
and temporal augments together ; as, eovoxoel {II., iv., 3), more fre- 
quently, however, ovoxoel : kr/vdavE, along with rjvdavE. 

4. In the Epic language the second aorists active and middle often 
take the reduplication, which remains through all the moods. In 
the indicative, the simple augment e remains commonly away ; thus, 
Kdfivu, 2d aor. subj. KEKajuco : KeTiofiat, 2d aor. indie, mid. ekek16[17]v : 
kXvo, aor. imper. kekTivOl : "kayxdvo, 2d aor. ind. \tkaxov : la/xSdvu, 
2d aor. infin. mid. *keka§eaQai : ?Mv6dvo, 2d aor. act. JieXadov : tcelOw, 
2d aor. act. ttehlOov : 2d aor. mid. Tremdo/inv : (f>pd£u, 2d aor. act. Tcety* 
padov and ene^padov, &c. — Aorists, with the so-called Attic redupli- 
cation, moreover, regularly take, in the Epic language, the augment 
along with this ; as, AP£2, 2d aor. r/p-apov : AX12, 2d aor. yn-axov : 
aki^o, 2d aor. rfk-aXKOv : opvvfii, 2d aor. cop-opov, &c. — Two verbs 
take, in the aorist, the reduplication in the middle of the word, 
namely, even™, 2d aor. Tjv-iTTairov, and hpvKo, 2d aor. Tjpv-naKov. 

2. Personal Endings and Mood-vowel. 

1. 1st pers. sing. act. The original ending of the first person sin- 
gular, namely, -fit, appears in the Epic language in many subjunt- 
tive-forms ; as, ktelvo^ll, aydycofu, rvxofii, \ko\ii, eOeXu/lii, tdu/ii. 

2. 2d pers. sing. act. In the Doric, and especially in the JEolic 
and Epic dialects, the lengthened form in -a6a is found. In the in- 
dicative this has remained, however, almost entirely in the conjuga- 
tion in -fit ; as, rldnaOa, tyr/ada, didotaOa, irapf/ada. This ending is 
often found in Homer in the subjunctive mood ; as, kdeTincrda, elnnaOa : 
less frequently in the optative ; as, KkaloiaQa, pdhoioOa. 



VERBS. 



377 



3. In place of the ending in sig, the Doric dialect has frequently 
the old form in -eg ; as, rvTrreg for TvnrtLg. So, in Theocritus, gv- 
pladeg for Gvpi&cg. 

4. 3d pers. sing. act. In the Epic language the subjunctive has 
sometimes the ending -at (arising out of the earlier -ri) ; as, kQeln- 
gi(v), aynai, aldTiKnaL. The optative has this only in izapcupdainGL. 

5. 1st pers. plur. act. The original termination -fj.se is retained in 
Doric ; as, tvtzto[ie<; for rvrrrofxev. 

6. 3d pers. plur. act. The primary tenses all end in the Doric 
dialect in -vrt ; as, tvtztovtl for tvtttovgi, rvipovn for rvijjovGt, rvn- 

TUVTL for TVTTTDGL, TETV(j)aVTl fOX T£TV(f>aGL, ETZCtlVEOVTt for ETraiVEOVOt Of 

hnaivovGi, &c. 

7. Personal endings of the pluperfect active. In the Epic and Ionic 
dialects we find the following forms : first person sing, -ea, which is 
the only Epic and Ionic form ; as, kreBri'KEa, ydsa, Trerroldea, instead 
of eredT/Treiv, &c. Second person sing, -eac ; as, kredrjireac (Od., xxiv., 
90), instead of kredrjireic. Third person sing. -ee(v) ; as, eyeyovee, 
KaraXeXoLTree, kdeBpufteev. Second person plural -eare ; as, Gwr/S-eare 
(Her., ix., 58). 

8. 2d pers. sing. pres. indie, and subjunct. middle or passive : im- 
perf. indie, mid. or pass. : 1st aorist indie, mid. In the Ionic, and 
often in the Epic language also, this person appears in its uncon- 
tracted form after throwing out the g ; as, kmTeTileai, rimreai, tvtt- 
rnat, etvttteo, Mipao, &c. Homer either employs these forms or 
else the contracted ones, namely, n (out of eac), ev (out of eo), and &> 
(out of ao) ; as, ettIev, epxev, (j>pd£ev, expe/uo. — When the character- 
istic of the verb is an e, the Ionic dialect frequently throws out the s 
before eat and eo ; as, §ikio,i for fyihezai, tydeo for tyikzeo, &c. The 
ending -eo is also sometimes lengthened into -sio in Homer ; as, 
epeio, Givelo, and the ending -seat contracted into etat, in verbs in ea> ; 
as, juvdetac, velat. Homer also sometimes throws out the g in the 
second person sing., perf. and pluperf. mid. or pass. ; as, fiift-vnai (along 
with fiefivn), (3e6?i7]aL, eggvo. 

9. The dual and plural endings -[ieOov, -jusOa, have often in the 
Epic, as well as in the Doric and Ionic dialects, and likewise with 
the Attic poets, the original form -fiecOov, fiEGda ; as, TvnrofiEGdov, 

TVTTTOflEGda. 

10. 3d pers. plur. perfect and pluperfect middle or passive ends, in 
Ionic and Epic, most commonly in -cltcu, -aro, instead of -vrai, -vro ; 
as, tzettelOcltcll, nEKavarai, kSE^ovlEvaro, EGrdlaro. — Very often, also, 
the third person plural of the optative middle or passive ends in -oiar& 9 
~aCaro> instead of -oivro, -aivro ; as, tvtztolo>tq for rvTzroivTOy dpr^ 



378 



VERBS. 



aaiaro for aprjaaivTo. The ending -ovto, even, underwent this same 
change in Ionic, yet so, however, that the o changed to e ; as, 
edovXearo for eSovTiovro. — With verbs in -dw and -ew, the n in the 
ending of the perfect and pluperfect (-nvrat, -rjvro) was shortened 
into e ; as, oiKearat for uKnvrat, from olkeo, ETETL/Ltiaro for ETETCfinvro, 
from Tifidcj. — The Ionians, moreover, said -earat for -avrai ; as, 
neTrriarai for nenravTai. The form dnUarat in Herodotus, from the 
perfect dcptyuat (present d(j>tKVEOfiat), is the only instance in which 
the rule laid down on page 304 ($7) is not observed. 

11. 3d pers. plur. aor. pass, in -naav is often shortened into ev, in 
the Done, Epic, and poetic dialects ; as, rpayev for hrpdeprjaav. In 
the optative this shortening is regular in the common language ; as, 
TV(pdet€v for Tvtfdslnaav. 

12. 3d pers. plur. imperative in -rocav (active) and -odtocav (mid- 
dle or passive) is shortened into -tov and -adov, in Ionic and Doric 
(in Homer always) ; as, tvktovtcjv for rvKTiroxjav, ireizotdovTuv for 
7T£7Tot6£TO)aav, rvTTTeaduv for TvirTeoduaav. 

13. The long mood- vowels of the subjunctive, o and n, are often 
shortened in the Epic language, from the requirements of the verse ; 
as, cofiev for ico/xev, QdiSfieada for QdcufisOa, arpecperat for arpeynrai, 
&c. 

14. The first aorist active of the optative has, in the JEolic dialed, 
the endings -eta, -stag, -eie, &c., 3d plur. -eiav, instead of -aifii, -ate, 
-ai, &c., 3d plur. -aiev. This form came also into common use in 
all the dialects, and' was more frequently employed by the Attics, also, 
than that in -at/ui, &c, but only in 2d and 3d sing, and 3d plur. 

15. Infinitive. The original full form of the infinitive active ends in 
-fjLsvai, and, with the mood- vowel, in -efievat, which is still found in 
the Epic, Doric, and JEolic dialects. This form was shortened some- 
times into -{jlev (-efiev), and sometimes into -vat. In the Epic lan- 
guage, however, we already find, also, the ending -eiv, arising out 
of -epev, and in contraction, and in the second aorist the endings -eeiv 
and-siv. The present, future, and second aorist take the mood-vowel 
e and the ending jllev ; as, rvnT-e-fiev, Tvipe/uEv, eltze[iev. — The verbs in 
do and eg) have, by the contraction of the characteristic vowels a 
and e with the infinitive-ending -e/uevat, the termination -jjfzsvai ; as, 
yorjfjLevai (from yodto), tyikriyLEvai (from (btTiio), fyoprjfiEvai (from (popEu). 
With this ending in -y/Ltsvai agrees that of the passive second aorist ; 
as, Tvrrrjfievai for rvnTjvai, which always occurs thus in the Epic 
language, but for which the Dorians have the shortened form -fj/uev ; 
as, TvnfjfiEv. — With verbs in -/u, the endings in -psv and -pevai attach 
themselves immediately to the unaltered verbal stem of the present, 



VERBS. 



379 



and in the second aorist to the pure stem ; as, rids-pev, ndE-fiEvai : 
iGrd-pLEv, lard-fievai : Stdo-fiev, dtdo-fievat : &e-/uev, -^e-fievai : 66-fiEv, 
66-fievai, &c. — The case is the same with the perfect that is formed 
immediately from the verbal stem ; as, redvdfiev, (3e6ufiev. Excep- 
tions to the above, however, occur in TidijfievaL (11., xxiii., 83) and 
didovvat (II., xxiv., 425), as well as in the second aorist infinitive 
active of verbs in a and v, which here retain the long vowel ; as, 
GTrj-fievai, prj-fLevat, dv-fiEvai, for Grfivai, dvvai. 

16. Along with the form in -e/Ltevat, and -e/llev, the Dorians had one 
shortened from the same in -sv ; as, ayev for ayziv : fut. dp^ooev for 
dpfioaeiv, from dpfio^u : 2d aor. act. I6ev for idelv, ?m6ev for ?ia6elv, &c. 

17. Participle. The Molic dialect has in the participle the diph- 
thong oi for ov, and at for a, before the letter g ; as, tvtttuv, tvtt- 
rotGa, TvnTov : TiaftoZaa, TiLTroiGa (for tvtttovgci, AaSovGa, "ktirovGa), and 
rvipaic, rvipaiGa, for rvipuc, Tvipuaa. — The Epic language enjoys the 
privilege of lengthening the accented o, in the oblique cases, into u ; 
as, fzefiatiTog, 7re<pv£)Tag. — The perfect participle active sometimes 
takes, in the Doric dialect, the ending of the present ; as, KEfypLKov- 
te£ for ne<pptfcoT£e. 



3. Epic and Ionic Iterative Form. 

1. The Ionic, and particularly the Epic, as w 7 ell as, in imitation of 
them, the tragic language, have a special imperfect and aorist form 
with the ending -gkov, to indicate a repeated or oft-recurring action. 
It is called, in consequence of this meaning, the iterative form. It 
regularly dispenses with the augment, though occasionally found 
with it. Thus, 

TV1TTEGK0V, TVTCTEG KOJJLrjV, from krVTTTOV, ETVTTTOjUnV, 

Tmpa.GK.ov, TvipaGKo/Li7]v, " frvipa, krvipd/inv. 

TV7TEGK0V, TVTTEGKOfZTJV, 11 ETVTTOV, ETVTrO/LiyV. 

2. These iterative forms, however, are found only in the singular 
number and third person plural of the indicative. Verbs in da blend 
-uegkov into -clgkov, which last can again be lengthened out into 
-daGKov, if required by the verse ; as, vucaGKOfiEv, vaisrdaGKov. Verbs 
in ecj have -eegkov and -egkov ; as, kuae-egke, (Sovkoaeegke, &e. ; and 
this -eegkov can be lengthened into -elegkov if the verse demand ; as, 
velkelegkov. Verbs in 6u have not the iterative form with the early 
writers. In the case of verbs in the mood-vowel is dropped ; as, 
tLQe-gkov, SISo-gkov, Selkvv-gkov. In some verbs the ending -ogkov 
takes the place of -egkov ; as, pIttt-cigkov, Kpvnr-aGKov, from jtiitTQ 

and KpVTTTG). 



380 



VERBS. 



4. Contraction and Resolution in Verbs. 
(A.) Epic Language. 
1. In the Epic language the contraction of verbs in do, e'w, ow, 
already appears, but is not by any means so regularly employed as 
in Attic. Thus, 

Verbs in do. — 1. In these verbs the open form appears only 
in certain words and forms ; as, Trepaov, nareon'iaoy, vaierdovai : 
always in v?mu, and in those verbs that have a long a as their 
characteristic, or whose stem is monosyllabic ; as, diipatov, 
tzelvuuv, Expas, ^XP^ £T£ (from ^pa-6>). 

2. In some verbs the a passes over into e ; as, fxevoiveov, from 
fievoivdu) : t/vteov, from dvrdu : ofionTiEOv, from dfionAau. 

3. In the place of the open, and the shut or contracted forms, 
there is employed, as often as the verse requires, a lengthening 
out of the vowel that has arisen from contraction, by inserting 
before it another vowel of similar nature, but this more fre- 
quently short than long. In this way a is lengthened out into 
da or aa, and o into oo> or wg>. The short vowel comes in 
when the syllable preceding the contracted one is short ; as, 
(opti), lengthened form opou ; but if this preceding syllable be 
long, then a long vowel is introduced ; as, 0?6£), lengthened 
form 7]66u.— This lengthening, however, does not take place 
when a comes before a personal ending beginning with r; as, 
opd-rai, 6pa-To, not bpdarai, opdaro. Thus, 
(dpdeic), opac, opuag, 
(opdeadat), opuadai, opuaodai, 
{fJLEVOLVdei), [MEVOLVd, [xevoivda, 
(edyg), edc, £& a C, 
(fzvdecjdai), {ivdcdai, fiv&avdai, 



(6pdo)) 1 6p&, bp6( 1 ) i 

(opdovca), optica, opouaa, 

(ftodovGi), floucn, /3o6g)ci> 

(opdoifii), optifii, opoayjuiy 

(dpdovat), dpuGt, dpG)G)Gl. 



When vr follows the contracted vowel, then, in lengthen- 
ing, the short vowel can follow the contracted one ; thus, 
7]6C)ovTa for r/dcovra, yEAuovTsg for yeXtivTee, /nv6ovro for jivuvto, 
&c. — We find, moreover, even in the optative, the lengthening 
ooL for <y in 7j66oifii (for 7/6ao^u — ?}6<p/u). — The participle-form 
vaiErduca (for vaiETooca) is anomalous. 

Verbs in eu. — 1. Contraction does not occur in all forms 
where e is followed by the vowels g>, w, 77, 77, 01 and ov ; as, 
(j>L7i£G)/j.£v, <j>iX£oi[ii, &c. Such forms as these, however, must 
commonly be pronounced by synizesis. — In other cases, the 
contracted or uncontracted form is employed according to the 
requirements of the verse. — When eo is contracted, it becomes 
ev ; as, alpEVjurjv, dvrevv, ysvev, except dvEpptirrovv and knopdovv* 



VERBS. 



381 



2. The open e is sometimes lengthened into ei ; as, heXeceTo, 
kreXecov, nleletv, bnveto, &c. 

3. In the ending of the second person singular of the present 
middle or passive, either the two vowels ee, which come in con- 
tact, are contracted ; as, [ivde-eai = fivSelai, like fivdelrat : veiai 
like veiTai : or else one e is elided ; as, pvdiai, noTieai. This 
elision of the e takes place regularly, also, as well with the 
Epic as with the Ionic writers, in the second person singular 
of the imperfect, and in the present imperative middle or pass- 
ive ; as, <j>o6£o, diceo, aireo, e^nyeo. 

Verbs in 6o. — These verhs follow either the common rules 
of contraction ; as, yovvovfiat, yovvovodai, or else are not con- 
tracted, but lengthen o into o, by which process the forms of 
verbs in 6o come to resemble those from verbs in cw ; as, ldp6- 
ovtcl, idpoovGa, vttvoovtclc (compare ySoovra) ; or else they pass 
completely over into the analogy of verbs in cw, by lengthening 
-ovgl into -oogi, -ovvto into -oovro, and -olev into -ooev. — This 
lengthening, however, into 6o or oo, is limited to those forms 
merely in which these same appear in verbs in do. Hence the 
present dpolc, dpol, dpovre, and the infinitive dpovv, do not admit 
of the lengthening in question. 

(B.) Ionic Dialect. 

1. In the Ionic dialect, the verbs in aw and do alone undergo con- 
traction ; those in eo regularly neglect this, with the exception of 
the frequently-occurring contraction of so and eov into ev ; as, $1- 
Tievfiev for <j>i?Jofiev — (pi^ov/iev : etyikevv for htyikeov = etyikovv : tyiXev 
for <j>i?iiov = <pthov. 

2. Verbs in do follow the ordinary rules of contraction : in the 
open forms, however, the a passes over into e ; as, opeo, opeofiev, 
for bpdo, dpdofjLsv : xP^ eraL i XP^ ovra ^ f° r xpdzrai, xpdovrai, &c. 

3. In the open forms, ao is frequently lengthened into eo ; as, 
Xpeovrat, kfCTeovro, opeovrec, Tretpeofievog, for (xpaovrai) xptii'Tat, &c. 

4. The lonians sometimes contract ao and aov (like ev and eov in 
verbs in eo) into ev ; as, elporevv for eporaov : yeXevaa for ye?idovaa : 
dyanevvrec for dyandovreg. So, also, in Doric ; as, ye^evvri for ye- 
Tidovai. This contraction of ev for ov takes place, also, frequently 
in verbs in 6o ; as, dtKauvoL for (diKaioovGL) diKaiovct,, diKatevv for 
diKaiovv, GTefpavevvrat, from oretyavoo, &c. 

5. The Epic lengthening seldom occurs, in verbs in do, in Ionic 
prose ; as, ko/zoogi, qyopoovro (Herodotus). 



382 



VERBS. 



(C.) Doric Dialed, 

1. Contrary to the usual character of Doric Greek, the vowels ae 
and aei are contracted into n and y ; as, tl^te for rifideTe = TifidTE : 
<j)oir?}c for (jtoiTdc : opfjv for opdv. The infinitive is written without 
the subscript t (as it should be written every where in Greek), since 
the uncontracted form originally ended in -aev. 

2. The infinitive in verbs in ew has a double form, namely, either 
the shortened one in -ev (for -elv) ; as, notev for ttouiv, or, according 
to the analogy of verbs in -aw, one ending in -fjv (and arising from 
-etjv) ; as, fyikfiv for tyilieiv == §iKeZv, noGufjv for kog^eiv, typovfjv for 

(j)pOV£lV, &C. 

3. The Dorians and Motions contract ao, aov, and aw into (2 ; a3, 

1TEIVUUEC for TTEIVCJ/LLEV (TTEivdoflEV), TTELVaVTt fOT 7T£tV(d-0V)G)Gl, jeTl&V 

for y£vl(a-Gw)a}i>, (f>voavT£g for <f>VG(d-o)C)VTEg. 



5. Formation of the Tenses. 

1. In the future and ^rs£ aom/ acta've and middle of 7?wr£ ^erta, 
which retain the short characteristic vowel in the formation of their 
tenses, and of verbs in £w and ggg) (rrw), the g in the ending is often 
doubled in Homer and the non-attic poets ; as, kyshaGGe, tcoreGGafte- 

VOC, OUOGGO-l, ETUVVGGE, StKaGGaC, KOjLLLGGE. 

2. The form of the so-called Attic future is found, in the Homeric 
language, in the verbs that end in /fw ; as, KreptovGi, dyXatEiGdai, 
along with opuiGGOfiEv, kottplggovtec, kovlggovglv. — In the verbs in 
eg), aw, vg), the poet forms futures that are like these presents : name- 
ly, in the case of verbs in eg), he often uses the ending £w in place 
of eggj; as, kodeel (II. , viii., 379), KopEEic (It., xiv., 831), /uaxiovrat 
(It., il, 366) : in the case of verbs in aw, after throwing out the <r, 
he places before the vowel that has arisen from contraction the 
short vowel of its class ; as, uvtiog), e16g)gi, Safzda : in the case of 
verbs in vo, we have spvovGt and ravvovGt. 

3. In the Doric dialect, the verbs in fa> take in those tenses in 
which the characteristic letter is g, that is, in the future and aorist, 
the letter f in place of g ; as, dt/cafw, fut. dma^u, 1st aor. kdtKa^a, 
instead of StKaGG), hdUaaa. The other tenses, however, with the 
pure characteristic 6, follow the regular formation ; as, sdiKaGdr/v, 
not kdiKaxdnv. — The Dorism just referred to is found even in some 
verbs in aw, which retain the short a in their tense-formation, and 
are, therefore, so far analogous to verbs in £w, which, in like man- 
ner, have a short vowel ; as, jeMg), 1st aor. kysAa^a, in place of 
kyEAaGa, but not vlkug), viKdt-fi, but vlkugg) (Attic vlktjgg)).- — In Doric 



VERBS. 



383 



poetry, whenever the verse requires it, all these forms with f can 
be supplanted by those with o, or, in other words, by the regular 
forms. 

4. Several liquid verbs form the future and first aorist active with 
the endings -erw and -ca, not only in the Epic language, but also in 
the poetic dialect of every period. This, however, is properly an 
^Eolic peculiarity. Thus, keXXco, 1st aor. infin. KEkoai : eUo, 1st aor. 
in/in. sXaac : bpvvfii, fut. opffw, 1st aor. ind. upoa : diatydelpo), 1st aor. 
infin. (in Homer) diatidEpoai, : Kslpu, 1st aor. ind. (in Homer) EKEpaa, 
but 1st aor. mid. EKELpdjunv : ^vpo, fut. <f)vpGG) : 1st aor. ind. efyvpaa. : 
fut. perf. ire^vpGOfiaL, &c. 

5. In the Epic language, the second aorist is frequently formed with 
a as its characteristic, a plain example of which in the common 
language, also, is found in ekecov, ttegecv, from IIETG. Thus, we 
have in Epic, l^ov, e6tjgeto, eSvoeto, and likewise some imperatives ; 
as, u^ete from dyco, te%o and 7ie%eo from Ieju, olae and olaere from 

<j>£pG), &c. 

6. In Homer, several 2d aorists are formed with a metathesis of 
the consonants, in order thereby to gain a dactyl ; as, ZdpaKov for 
eddpKov (from dspKOjuai), EirpaOov for EirdpOov (from nipOu), idpudov 
for fdapOov (from dapddvu), y/LL6porov for 7/fiaprov (from dfiaprdvu.) — 
On the same grounds the poet employs the syncope in the stem. 
(Consult page .) 

7. In theirs* aorist passive, Homer, in order to meet the require- 
ments of the verse, inserts a v, not only as other poets also do, in 
KpivLd and kMvg) (thus, diatcpivdf/TE, npivdelc, ekVlvOt)), but also in the 
verbs idpvo and ttveg) ; as, tdpvvdvv (along with which, however, he 
uses likewise idpvdnv) and dfiTrvvpO?]. 

8. Homer forms a first perfect only in pure verbs, and such impure 
ones as take an e in their tense-formation, or else experience me- 
tathesis ; as, ^a/pw, perf. 1 KExdprjKa (from XAIPE-12) : pdXkco, perf. 
1 /3i6?i7)Ka (from BA A-). Besides this he forms merely second perfects, 
which regularly belong to intransitive verbs, or else take an in- 
transitive meaning. — In pure verbs, however, and the class of impure 
verbs already mentioned, he rejects the k in certain persons and 
moods, and regularly in the participle, so that these forms resemble 
the analogy of the second perfect. These participles either lengthen 
the stem-vowels a and e into 77 ; as, /3£6ap7}6c(from BAPE-S2), KEKopr\(dc 
(from KopEvvviii), kekottjcjc (from koteu), tet\t]C)c (from TAAG), kek- 
fiTjtoc (from KdfjLvco), TEdvnue (from -&vr)OKid) : or else they retain (though 
rarely) the stem-vowel unaltered 5 as, pESatoc (from paivu, BAG), 
eityeyavia (from ylyvofiai, TAS2), Seddtoc (from diddotio), AAft), netyvvia 



384 



VERBS. 



(from <pvu), Evrawg (from lorrifii., 2TAQ), fiE/uaug (along with fie/ia6g 
and jLLEfidoTe^ from MA£2). — The accented o of the oblique cases can, 
in the first instance, be lengthened into cj if required by the verse, 
and hence we have TeOvr/orog and TEdvurog, TsOvnora and redvura, ksk- 
firjora and KEKfiura, &c. When, however, the nominative has a short 
penult, we always have u ; as, psBauTog. — The ending -6g, arising 
from contraction, can be lengthened out again by the insertion of e ; 
as, nenTeuTa (from 7cItctcj), te6veC>tl (from $vt)oko>), &c, and, if re- 
quired by the verse, this e can be changed to el ; as, TEdvEttirog. — 
The feminine form in -fiaa occurs only in PeSuoo, (Od., xx., 14). In 
some feminine forms, the antepenult, which ought properly to be 
long, is shortened on account of the verse ; as, dpdpvca (belonging to 
aprjpug, from dpaplcTfccj), fiEfiaKvla (fisftnicug, from finKaofiai), TEdakvla 
{rEdrjTiug, from ftaXXu), TiETiaKvla (Xs/inKcjg, from Aacr/cw), TTETzdOvla 
(from 7ra(7^w). 

9. Some verbs, which in the stem of the present have the diph- 
thong ev, shorten this, among the Epic writers and poets, in the per- 
fect middle or passive, and also in the first aorist passive, into v ; 
as, 7TEvdojLLai, perf mid. or pass. irEirvojLtat : gevu, perf. mid. or pass. 
EGcrvfiai, 1st aor. pass. eggvOtjv : tevx g) (poetic), perf. mid. or pass. 
TETvyfiai, 1st aor. pass. krvxOrjv : cpEvyo), perf. mid. or pass. 7T£(j)vy- 
jiEvog. — The verb x™ (arising from XeSo, x e ™) follows this same 
analogy in the forms KExyaa, kexv^l, sxvdr/v. But, on the other 
hand, the verb tzveu has the long v in Homer, contrary to this same 
analogy ; thus, ttv.eu (7ti>£Aj), nEirvvfiac. 

Remark 1. In Homer (Od., xviii., 236) we find the optative 
form Xe'Kvto (3d pers.) instead of TieIvlto, according to the anal- 
ogy of TrrjyvvTO, daivvro. 

Remark 2. The Homeric forms of the perfect participle a/cax?j- 
fiEvog, dXaXyfiEvog, dprjpefiEvog, hXn'kdfiEvog, and of the perfect in- 
fin. aKaxvcdai, aAaXncda^ have the accentuation of the present. 



6. Verbs in -fii. 

1. In the Epic, Ionic, and Doric dialects, the forms from -eu> and 
-06), in the 2d and 3d pers. sing, of the present and imperfect, are 
frequently employed ; as, tlOeic, tlOeI, StSolg, dtdoT, etlOel, kdtdovg, 
tdidov, 1st. — Contracted forms, however, ofiGryjUL rarely occur; as, 
iurd for igtvgl. 

2. The 3d person plural of the imperfect and second aorist, in e-oav, 
7}-gciv, o-aav, u-aav, v-aav, is shortened, by the Epic and Doric 
writers, into ev, dv, ov, vv ; as, ItlQev for et'l6egq,v, eOev and &iv for 



VERBS, 



385 



Wegclv, egt&v and gtuv for eerqcav, <pdav for tydrjaav, IBdv and 
for e&ycav, ididov and di'dov for eSffioeav. edov and ddv for «5otyav, 
et/wi; for e<pvGav. 

3. In the 2d pers. sta^*. of the present imperative active, Homer 
usually has Igttj, but in II., ix., 202, we find tcad-lcra. — In the 2d 
pers. sing, of the present imperative and 2d aorist middle, Homer 
throws out the cr, and leaves the form open, even w r hen it might 
have been contracted ; as, daivvo, fidpvao^do, gvvOeo, evQeq. — In the 
Ionic dialect, in the ending of the 2d pers. sing. pres. indie, mid. or 
pass, -acai, the a is rejected, and then the a passes over into e ; as, 
kmcTeat, dvveau, for knivTacsai, dvvauat. From this arise kizLGrrj in. 
Ionic writers, and Svvy also in the tragic ones. 

4. The short stem-vowel is lengthened, when required by the verse, 
before the personal endings beginning with p and v ; as, Titif/pievoc, 
Stdovvac. So, also, SlScoOc, 'ikrfii (for llddi.) 

5. The 3d pers, sing, of the subjunctive often has the ending ai in 
the Epic dialect ; as, 6&gi and 66vgc, instead of d£. 

6. The contracted 2d aorist subjunctive of verbs with the char- 
acteristic a and e is, in the Epic language sometimes, and in the 
Ionic dialect regularly, lengthened out by the insertion of e ; as, 
lgtCj, Ionic Iote-cj, iare-yc, lgte-o/liev : art), Ionic gte-cj, <jTE-yc, &c. : 
rtdC), Ionic Tide-co, ridi-yc, &c. : TiO&fiai, Ionic ride-cojuai, tlOe-ts, &c. : 

Ionic $£-g) : tfti/zat, Ionic #e-w//ai, &c. — In verbs, how 7 ever, 
whose characteristic is a, Homer lengthens out the contracted sub- 
junctive of the 2d aorist, by inserting &> ; as, 6uugl for 6ugi. — It is 
to be remarked that the two aorists passive of all verbs follow the 
analogy of iGrnfit and rldrjut ; as, rvirti, -yg, Ionic tvtceg), -£ne : evpedfi, 
-yc, Ionic evpeOicj, -eye, &C. 

7. The 3d pers. sing, ends in Doric in ri ; as, igtcitl, TtOnrt, Sldori, 
Selkvvtl, and the 3d pers. plur, in vti ; as, cgtuvti, tlBevti 6l66vti, 

tieiKVVVTL. 

8. In the 3d pers. plur. mid. or pass, the v is regularly changed by 
the Ionic dialect into a, before the personal endings rat and to ; as, 
Tidearat, SiSoarai, kdetKiwaro, instead of rldevrai, &c. 

Kk 



386 VERBS. 



9. Dialects ofBlfit ('E2-), "to be." 



PRESENT. 


INDICATIVE. 


OPTATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


S. 1 

2 
3 

P. 1 

2 
3 


k/bt[il, JEolic (for ea-fj.1), 

eggI, Epic, also Eur. ) 
Hel., 1250. — elg, £ 
Ionic, S 

evTt, Doric, 
eljuev, Epic and Ionic, 
hark, regularly, 
eclgi{v), Epic and Ion- > 
ic ; evtl, Doric, 5 


2 ioig, Epic and 
Ionic, 

3 !oj, JS^zc and 
Ionic, 

2 eZrf , .Epz'c, 

3 ekv, Epic, 


1 eg), Epic and Ionic ; 
elu, Epic. 

2 Enc, Ionic. 

3 £7/, ETjGl, 7)Gl, E17J, \ 

Epic ; E-n, Epic and > 
Ionic. S 

P. £G)/Ll£V, ETjTE, EQGl, ) 

Epic and Ionic. ) 
Imperative. 
S. 2 lerco, JSo/ic and 

Epic, 
P. 3 eovrwv, Ionic. 

Participle. 
egjv, kovaa, kov, Epic 
and Ionic. 


Infin. ejuevat, EfifiEvcu, ejuev, e/u/lisv, Epic, 
Tjfiev or rj^sg, eljuev or elfiac, Doric. 



IMPERFECT. 




indicative. 
la, fja, eov, eg kov, Epic and Ionic. 
h]Gda, Epic ; sac, Ionic. 

evv, Epic and Ionic ; rjrjv, tjev, egke, Epic ; yg, Doric. 
rjGTvv, Epic. 

rjfiEv or yfiEc , eI[lev or ec/iec, Doric. 
eclte, Ionic. 

egclv, Epic and Ionic: eiclto (for tjvto), Od., xx., 106. 



Fut. EGOfiai and eggo/ucii, &c, Epic, according to the requirements 
of the verse : 2. egecii ; 3. egetcli, EGEirai. 



10. ElfiL ('I-), "/go." 



Pres. Indic. S. 2 

" Optat. S. 3 
" Infin. 


EtGda, Epic ; Elg, Ionic. — Pres. subj. S. 2, Incda, 
Epic. 

lot, Epic; Ie'iv, II., xix., 209. 

l/iEvac, Ijusv, Epic. 


Imperf. Indic. S. 1 
2 
3 

D. 3 
P. 1 
3 


7]ia (with rjEiv), Epic and Ionic ; fjlov, Epic. 
rjiEC (with r/£ig), lec, Epic. 

Tj'iE (with yEi), Epic and Ionic ; tjIev, Epic ; ys(v), 

le(y), Epic. 
Irrjv, Epic. 
yofiEV, Epic. 

rjlov, Epic ; TjiGdv and yGav, Epic and Ionic ; Igclv, 

Epic. 


Fut. and Aor. Mid. EtGOfzat, eigclto, D. 3, eelgoigBt/v . II., xv., 544. 



ADVERBS. 



387 



VIII. ADVERBS. 

I. By adverbs we understand those indeclinable words by means 
of which the relations of time, place, and manner are denoted ; as, 
vvv, "now:" £kci, "there;" KaJi&e, "well." 

II. Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by assuming the 
ending cjc. This ending is attached to the pure stem of the adjec- 
tive ; and since, in the third declension, this appears in the genitive, 
and adjectives in the plural agree with adverbs in point of accentu- 
ation, we have the following rule for the formation of adverbs from 
adjectives : 

Rule. In forming adverbs, the ending of the genitive plural (cjv) is 
changed into o>g ; as, 

tyikoc, dear ; gen. plur. (plh-ojv, adv. §Uk-uc. 

koJKoc, beautiful ; " " naX-tiv, " Kah-fic. 
uttTiovc, simple; " " aizX-uv, " anTi-uc 

irac, all ; gen. navroc ; " " ttuvt-uv, " iruvr-og. 
o6(f>pG)P, moderate; " " Gotypov-uv, " Gocppov-og. 

raxw, swift ; " " raxe-tov, " raxe-ooc. 

lieyac, great ; u " /ueydX-ov, " jieyaX-uc. 

aXndrig, true ; a a aXnQ-tiv, " (iknQ-uc. 

GwrjOnc, customary ; " " GvvrjQ-uv, " GwrjO-wc. 

III. In many cases the adverb has no particular form, but is ex- 
pressed by some part of the adjective. Thus, 

(A.) The neuter of the adjective, singular and plural, is used 
for an adverb, chiefly by the poets ; as, nalbv usldeiv, " to sing 
beautifully :" ppax^a dieWeiv, " to recount briefly." 

(B.) In like manner, also, the dative singular feminine occurs 
instead of an adverb; as, dn/ioGla, " publicly :" idea, "privately :" 
KOtvr, " in common :" ne^y, " on foot :" ravry, "thus," " in this 
manner." But, strictly speaking, in such constructions a sub- 
stantive is always to be supplied ; as, drjfioGta, scil. /SovXy : 
ravrn, scil. 6(k>, &c. 

IV. Adverbs are also formed from substantives in various ways ; 
thus, 

(A.) Certain forms of substantives are used in the significa- 
tion of adverbs ; as, apxnv with a negative, "not at first," i. e., 
never at all, not at all, like the Latin omnino non : a,K[irjv, " at the 
point," i. e., "in a moment," "directly:" no/uidy, "with care," 
"carefully," "exactly," "just:" CKOvdy, "with trouble" i. e., 
" scarcely" " hardly." 



388 



ADVERBS* 



(B.) Some substantives furnish an adverbial sense when com- 
bined into one word with prepositions. Thus, napaxpfj/ia for 
napd to xPW a, > " 071 the spot" "forthwith" "straightway:" 
npovpyov, contracted for izpb ipyov, strictly, "for a work or 06- 
ject" hence 44 to the purpose" " serviceable " " worth the attain- 
ment :" EKiroduV) " away from the feet" i. e., out of the way" 
"away" "far away :" efinoduvy formed according to the analogy 
of ennoduv for kv iroolv &v, "before the feet" i. e., "in the way" 
V. Adverbs are derived from substantives, pronouns, and other 
adverbs, by annexing certain syllables ; thus, the terminations &a, 
&i, oi, at, xVi an d X ov i signify 44 in a place ;" the terminations &e and 
$£v, "from a place;" and 6e, ae, fe, "to a place" Thus, 



kvravda, here, 
ovpavodi, in heaven* 
oIkoi, at home^ 
'Adfivncu, at Athens, 
TravraxVy every where, 
navraxov, " 44 
uXkaxov, elsewhere, 



ovpavodev, from heaven, 
ovpavode, " 44 
oiKoOeV) from home f 
ovpavovde, to heaven, 
ovpavdae, " 44 
Qri6a&, to Thebes, 
'A6f}va&, to Athens. 



Remark. The termination fe is nothing more than o-de, the 
double letter being put for the ad. This change, however, oc- 
curs merely in some names of places, and in a few other words ; 
such as tivpafr for tivpaade, "to the door," "out." 

VI. Adverbs are also formed from substantives by annexing the 
syllables -fiov and -lari, and those thus produced express compari- 
son; as,* porpvdov, "cluster-wise:" nvvrjdov, "after the manner of a 
dog" "greedily :" ^TCknviari, "after the manner of the Greeks :" av- 
dptart, "after the manner of men." 

VII. Adverbs derived from substantives sometimes end in -ddrjv, 
and then denote that something takes place by the application of the 
idea which is contained in the substantive ; as, loyddnv (from 
Xoyof), 44 by selection :" dfitoTiddrjv for dvaBoXddnv (from avato7Jf), " by 
way of prelude." 

VIII. Adverbs are likewise derived from verbs, and have the 
termination ~dnv, which termination is annexed immediately to the 
stem. A preceding soft or aspirate, however, must change at the 
same time into the corresponding middle letter; thus, we have 
KpvSdnv from KpvivTtd (stem Kpv6), "secretly:" nheydnv from ttTicku 
(stem n2,€K), 44 in plaits or braids :" av?i7[^6dr/v, from avllafiSdva 
(stem avTilaS), " taken together," i. e., "collectively " "in short." 

IX. Lastly, adverbs are formed from some prepositions. These 



ADVERBS. 



389 



adverbs serve to denote place, and terminate all in w; as, dvo (from 
dvd), "above:" kutcj (from Kara), "below:" l£w (from "with- 
out :" elo-o) (from etc), " within :" irpoau (from npoc), " onward.'' 1 
This a) belongs also to some other adverbs ; as, ucpvo, " suddenly :" 
ovto, " thus :" oitlgg), " behind :" izoppcj, "far" " afar." 

X. Besides these, there are many adverbs also whose derivation 
does not admit of being accurately pointed out, and which are partly 
obsolete adjective forms; as, irXnalov, "near:" arjfjiEpov, "to-day:" av- 
ptov, "to-morrow :" dyxov, "near:" o/xov, "at the same time:" einrj, 
" at random :" and partly genuine adverbs, with the terminations a, ac, 
i, ei, oc, ov, re ; as, fcdpra, " very :" TzeXag, " near :" fieya?.DGTL, " great- 
ly :" fuel, " there :" not, " whither V ttov, " where V ttote, " when" &c. 

XI. Under the head of adverbial particles, the d (before a vowel, 
uv) must be specially noticed. It is commonly regarded as of four 
kinds : I. a GTepnriKov, alpha privativum, expressing want or absence, 
like the Latin in-, and the English un- ; as, go^oc, "wise:" dao<poc, 
"unwise:" uvvdpoc, " without water." — 2. d dOpoiGTiKov, alpha copula- 
tivum, expressing union or participation ; as, dicoiTtc, " a spouse :" 
ude?i(f)oc, " a brother." This answers to the adverb a/ia, and may be 
again traced in dftoc-, 6-, as in ofioloc, bn&Tpioc, bydarpioc. — 3. d 
kmrariKov, alpha intensivum, strengthening the force of compounds, 
and said to answer to the adverb dyav, "very." The use of this d, 
however, has been most unduly extended by the old grammarians. 
Many words quoted as examples seem to be inventions of their own ; 
as, dyovoc, dyvfivavroc, for izoTivyovog, TTohvyvfivaeroc (Valc/c., Adon., 
p. 214) : some words, again, have been referred to this d which be- 
long to d privative ; as, dddupvToe, ddeatyaToc, d$vloc, &c. ; and in 
those which remain, as ugkloc, drevric, danepxeg, &c, it may well 
be asked whether the d be any more than a modification of d copu- 
lative, just as the Sanscrit sa-, which belongs to the same root as 
afjia, simul, and, therefore, is strictly copulative, has also an inten- 
sive force. (Kuhner, G. G., § 380, D. — Doderlein, de d intcnsivo ) — 
4. d euphonicum, in Ionic and Attic, is used merely to soften the 
pronunciation, mostly before two consonants ; as, d&knxpoc, dcmalpcj, 
darepoiTTj, for (STinxpoc, ona'tpo, GTepoTcrj. Yet we sometimes meet 
with it before merely one, especially fi ; as, dfielpo/LLai for fietpofiai. 

XII. The following adverbial particles also occur frequently in the 
poets, and denote increase, &c. 



dpi- ; as, dpi-dn'koc, 
(3ov- ; " fiov-SpoGTic, 



very hungry, 
loud-shouting, 
thickly- shaded. 



very conspicuous. 



ftpi- ; " Ppt-Tjirvoc, 
6a- ; " dd-OKioc, 



K 



k 2 



390 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 




as ; £pi-6pe/Ltrjg, 

" ^d-norog, 

" Tid-fLiaxoc, 

" TiL-laiofxai, 



loud-roaring, 
furious, 
valiant. 

I desire earnestly. 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 



I. There are in Greek two simple negative particles, with which 
all other negations are compounded, namely, ov and fijj. The for- 
mer of these hecomes ovtc before a vowel that has the soft breathing, 
and ovx before a vowel that is aspirated. The Attics, also, for great- 
er emphasis, sometimes write ovxU for which the Ionians have ovtcl. 

II. From these two negatives, ov and [irj, are formed all the other 
modes of negation in Greek ; such as ovde, ovre, ovdelc, ovixore, ov- 
TCtoTTore, ovdap.£)c, ovSa/nov, finds, firjre, /iTjde'ic, &c. 

III. Although the English language possesses only one expression 
for both of these particles, yet between the use of ov and fiy, in 
Greek, a definite and important distinction obtains. 

IV. In general, this distinction is correctly designated by saying 
that ov denies positively and directly ; but that /uij, on the contrary, 
denies conditionally or prohibitively. Hence ov is only used to deny 
a thing itself; tirj, on the contrary, to deny the supposition of a thing. 

V. Hereupon is founded the following General Rule : Ov stands 
as a negative particle in all independent propositions, and in all cases, 
likewise, where an idea is expressed in and by itself. Mij, on the 
contrary, denies in conditional propositions, whether they appear as 
really dependent or the dependence lies merely in the imagination, as 
in conditional and assumed cases. 

VI. The following remarks will lead to a right application of this 
rule in single cases : 

Remark 1. A whole and independent proposition, whether 
pronounced as an absolute assertion or as an opinion and view, 
or as a question, can be negatived only by the particle ov. 
Thus, ovk dyaObv y TtoXvuoipavia, " the government of the many 
is not good.'''' Ovk av dyairG)7}v KaXeloQai llttlgtoc, " I would not 
like to be called faithless." Tl yap ov ndpeGTiv ; " Why, then, is he 
not present ?" 

Remark 2. M77, on the contrary, appears as a negation after 
all particles expressing condition, supposition, and intention ; 

as, el fir) bpduc ?Jyu, gov epyov eXeyxetv, " if I do not speak cor- 
rectly, it is your part to prove it." 

Remark 3. Mi] is used after relatives, and with participles 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 



391 



when these likewise express a condition ; as, Tig 6e dovvat 6v- 
varat iripcj a jiT) avroc exec ; "who can give a thing to another, 
if he has it not himself?" Here a ovk clvtoc exec would mean, 
"that which he has not himself." So, also, 6 firj ttlgtevuv, "if a 
person does not believe." But 6 oh klgtevuv, " one who does not 
believe" 

Remark 4. M77 is used with infinitives, whether they be de- 
pendent upon a verb or accompanied by the article ; as, avayKn 
tovto (17] tzoieZv, " it is necessary not to do this." To firi 7zeio67}vat 
fioL^alrtov gol rtiv Ka/ctiv, "your not being persuaded by me is to 
you the source of these evils." 

Remark 5. M77 always stands with the imperative, as also 
with the subjunctive when it is used instead of the imperative, 
and with the optative when it indicates a wish ; as, firj np&TTe 
tovto, "do not do this;" /lltj tovto Spdcryc : and again, firj tovto 
■yevoiTo, "may this never be." It is used also in interrogative 
sentences, which express an anxiety on the part of the speaker, 
and hence expect a negative answer ; as, firj vogelc ; or, apa jut} 
vogelc ; " thou art not ill, art thou 1" (Vid., also, pages 490, 493). 

Remark 6. Every purpose implies a conception in the mind 
of some one or other, and therefore fit}, not ov, follows tva, ottoc, 
5(ppa ; as, ZoXcjv aTreS^fivGe erea Seko. tva 6rj firj Tiva t&v vofiuv 
avaytcaGdy Xvgcll, tuv eOeto : " Solon absented himself from, home 
for the space of ten years, in order namely that he may not be com- 
pelled to rescind any one of the laws which he had enacted." 

VII. Two negatives generally strengthen the negation, and do 
not destroy each other, as in Latin. 

VIII. This rule may be expressed more fully as follows : When 
to a sentence already made negative, other qualifications of a more 
general kind are to be added, such as sometimes, some one, some- 
where, &c., these are all commonly subjoined in the form of words 
compounded with the same negative particles ; as, ovk EirocnGs tovto 
obfiatiov ovthtc, " no one any where did this." And in the same man 
ner, to the negation of the whole is subjoined the negation of the 
parts ; as, ov dvvarac ovt' ev Xh/Eiv, ovt' ev ttoielv tovc (piTiovc, " he 
can neither speak well of, nor do good to, his friends." 

IX. In some phrases both the particles ov and y.r) are united ; as, 
ov firj and {iq ov. In this combination, as in all other cases, ov de- 
nies objectively and firj subjectively. Hence ov urj implies the idea 
of no apprehension being entertained that a thing will take place ; 
ay ov, on the contrary, the idea of an apprehension being entertain- 



392 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 



ed that a thing will not take place. Hence are derived the follow- 
ing remarks : 

Remark 1. Ov [iff is an intensive and emphatieal negation, 
and indicates what should not and must not take place. I. When 
used with the fat, indie, the clause must be interrogative ; as, ov 
ur) tls agei ; where the actual construction seems to be ovne a^ei 
. . . . fjtT} u%ei \ "no one shall lead thee off, . . . shall he V so that ov 
fir} rig agei is merely a strengthened way of saying ov Tig u^ei, " no 
one shall lead thee off" and the 2d pers, of the future becomes mere- 
ly a strong prohibition, {Herm. Conlr. Elms. Med.,\\2Q.) — II. With 
the subjunctive aorist, the simplest way seems to suppose an ellip- 
sis of deivov ear i , deog kori, &e., which is actually found in Herodo- 
tus (1, 84), ovk 7}V deivov fit? ak&. 

Remark 2. Mtj ov, in dependent propositions, when the verb 
of the principal proposition is either accompanied by a negation 
or contains a negative idea in itself, destroy each other, and 
are often to be translated by " thai." Thus, ovk. apvovfiat prf ov 
yeviodai, "I do not deny thai it has taken place ;'' and again, 
Tzeldofiai yap ov tooovtov ovSev &gte [M} ov tcaTitic d-avetv, "for 1 
am persuaded that there will nothing happen to me so bad but that 
I shall die nobly.'' 1 

Remark 3. In independent propositions, on the contrary, ftrf 
ov is used in combination with the subjunctive to express neg- 
ative assertions with less positiveness and strength, and is to 
be translated by "indeed not" "perhaps not," and explained by 
the addition of an omitted verb, as opa, or the like. Thus, aXka 
lirj ovk y didanrbv i] dperrj, " but virtue may, perhaps, be a thing 
not to be taught" Literally, " but see whether virtue may not be" 
&c, the verb bpa being supplied. {Herm. ad Vig., n. 265.) 
X. Besides the case of \iri ov mentioned above, two negatives also 
destroy each other when they belong to different verbs ; as, vb&ev 
egtiv ort ovk vneax £T0 > " he promised every thing ;" literally, " there is 
nothing that he did not promise." 

XL As compounded with the negation owe, the particle otjkow 
may also find a place here. This particle, used by the Greeks both 
in questions and in direct propositions, admits of different transla- 
tions, and is also differently accented, being sometimes written 
qvkovv and sometimes ovkow. The following is to be remarked as 
essential concerning it. 

Remark 1. In interrogative propositions, when the particle 
signifies not therefore 1 is it not sol n&tl it is always to be ac- 
cented ovkovv, because ova must here be significantly and em- 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



393 



phatically heightened. Thus, ovkovv y&ug rjdtGrog elg kxfy°h 
yeXdv ; " is it not, then, the sweetest laughter to laugh at one's 
enemies V 1 •» 

Remark 2. In direct propositions ovkovv is either to be trans- 
lated " therefore not," " yet not," or else it stands at the begin- 
ning of the proposition as a mere emphatical expression for the 
simple ovv, and is to be translated by 14 therefore," "consequent- 
ly ;" as, gv tovto eiroinGag, ovkovv eyoye, 44 thou hast done this, 
therefore not I." In this case the accentuation is generally 
given as ovkovv. Strictly considered, however, the idea of 
negation does not vanish in ovkovv even where it is to be trans- 
lated by therefore, but the particle is there, also, properly an in- 
terrogative one. Thus the following sentence, ovkovv, brav 6tj (iq 
udevo), neTvavGoiiat, 44 therefore, when I am unable, I shall desist," 
is equivalent to 44 is it not so 1 when I am unable, I shall desist V* 



CONJUNCTIONS, &c, 
AAAA. 

1. *AXka is an adversative conjunction. It is in fact, however, 
the neuter plural of aklog, though with changed accent, and so, 
strictly means 44 in another way," 44 otherwise." It introduces, there- 
fore, something different from what was before said, and serves to 
limit or oppose whole sentences or single clauses. Hence it an- 
swers generally to the English 4t but." From this meaning arise 
others, however, such as, "well, then," "therefore," in which case 
oXkd is generally elliptical. Thus, aXK IgOl, on ^ec rovd* otrug' 
"well, then, know that this will be so." Supply ovk avnctTTjaio, or the 
like ; " I will not oppose, but, on the contrary, know," &c. So, in the 
following passage of Xenophon, it occurs in four different senses, all 
of which may be traced by means of ellipses to the primitive mean- 
ing of 44 but" 'AXXa fid At', etyn, ovk avtbg sTiKeoOat npog as [iovAo* 
fiat t uXkd as irpbg efie rcopeveGdat. 'AXXa nopevGOfiaL, ktyn, fiovov 
VTTod£x ov ' 'A/IA' VKodetjo/jtal ae, i(j>n' eav [mtj rig tychorepa gov evdov y. 
" 4 Nay, indeed, 1 replied Socrates, * 7 do not wish to be dragged unto you, 
but you to come to me. 1 1 Well, then, 1 said Theodota, 4 1 will come ; do 
you only receive me. 1 i Why, I will receive you, 1 replied Socrates, * if 
there be not some one dearer than you within. 1 " 

2. 'AAAd yap. In this combination yap introduces a reason for the 
opposition, &c, expressed by dTikd. Thus, aXXd yap Kpiovra Ticvggo), 
navGcj rovg irapeGTCJTag Xoyovg. 44 But I will check what I am at pres- 
ent saying, for I see Creon" Sometimes, however, the reference is 



394 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



more latent, and a clause is to be supplied between 6Xkd and ydp 
from what precedes. Thus, in Plato, Rep., ii., p. 336, we have, dXkd 
ydp ev adov 6lkt]v duaofiev, where we must repeat from the previous 
clause, ovk dffifiioi dnaXkd^op,ev. " But we shall not escape unharmed, 
for we shall render atonement in Hades." In many instances the 
reference in alia ydp is to be supplied by some general remark, 
such as, " but this was not at all surprising, for ; n " but this was im- 
possible, /or," &c. 

3. 'A/M' ovv ye. These particles are often joined together, inas- 
much as, along with the opposition, a consequence of what has pre- 
ceded is also expressed. Thus, uXK ovv tovtov ye rbv xpovov tjttov 
dydrjc eao/xat. " Yet (dXkd) I will, for this reason (ovv), now at least 
(ye) be less disagreeable." 

4. When joined with ovde it strengthens the sense ; as, u/U' ovdh 
neipdoofiaL, "nay, I will not even try." Frequently, in this construc- 
tion, ov fxovov ov is to be supplied in what precedes ; as, in the pres- 
ent instance, we may say, " I will not only not do so, but I will not 
even try." 

5. In dTCkd rot the particle rot strengthens the force of dXkd ; " but, 
indeed," " why, that, indeed," " why, as for that," &c. Thus, dXk' 
rjdv rot. " Why, that is a pleasant thing enough." 

AN. 

1. The particle dv, for which the Epic writers use k£ or k£v, can 
not well be expressed by any corresponding particle in English, but 
only gives to a sentence an air of uncertainty and mere possibility. 
It is employed, therefore, to modify or strengthen the subjunctive 
and optative ; and is also employed with the indicative, in order to 
impart to it more or less of uncertainty. ( Vid. Syntax.) 

2. This particle commonly stands after one or more words in a 
clause, and is thus distinguished from the hv which is formed by 
contraction from edv. This latter particle dv usually begins a clause, 
and has the meaning of " if" &c. The Attic prose writers usually 
change it into fjv, the Attic poets always. 

3. The particle edv, u if" is compounded of the conditional el and 
the dv mentioned in the first paragraph. 

4. The dv first mentioned is frequently put twice, sometimes even 
thrice, in a clause or sentence. In some cases, where the dv occurs 
twice, one of these particles attaches itself to a finite verb and the 
other to a participle or infinitive ; as, opuvrec dv exprjoavro dv "If 
they had seen they would have used." Many cases occur, however, 
where this explanation will not answer, and where the second or 
repeated dv must be regarded as brought in merely to indicate more 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



395 



plainly the idea of uncertainty intended to be expressed. Thus, 
aXka kuv evt-aivro av yevicdac " But they might, perhaps, have wished 
it to happen" 

APA. 

1. The primary power of dpa is that of deducing consequences 
from premises, and hence it has usually the signification of " there- 
fore. It is regularly employed, therefore, in the conclusion of syl- 
logisms ; as, el yap eloi ftcjfiol, elvi Kal d-sol • a/lAa firjv elat (3o{iot' elaiv 
upa Kal -&eoi, "for if there are altars, there are also gods. But there 
certainly are altars ; therefore there are gods too." When joined with 
&, el p;, or edv, it signifies 11 if then" "if indeed" or, more proba- 
bly, "consequently " Hence it serves for an emphatic asseveration, 
as if founded on an inference. 

2. Different from this is the adverb apa, which is an interrogative 
particle, like the Latin num or ulrum. Thus, apa naradrfkov 6 pov- 
Xofzai Xeyetv ; " Is, then, what I wish to say evident V When a neg- 
ative answer is expected, it has generally the particle firj attached 
to it. Thus, hav 6e gov TrpocKarnyopycG), on dia to ayaa&ai avrov, 
Kal evvolKug exeic irpbe avrov, dpa fir} dtaftaKXeodai dot-ete vn' kfiov ; 
" But if I shall still farther allege against you, that, in consequence of 
your admiration of him, you feel also well disposed toward him, will you 
on that account think that you are slandered by me V If we wish to 
express the Latin nonne, it is done by up' ov, and sometimes even 
by dpa alone. 

3. The interrogative dpa is placed first in a clause or sentence ; 
but the dpa first mentioned stands always after one or several 
words, and even at the close of a proposition. 

TAP. 

1. Tap, "for," never stands at the beginning of a proposition or 
clause, but, instead of it, Kal yap is used at the beginning, like etenim 
in Latin. In Greek, the proposition of which that with yap assigns 
the cause is often omitted, inasmuch as it is easily understood, and 
is passed over by the speaker in the vivacity of discourse. Thus, 
in the answer so common in Plato, we have eon yap ovtcj, " (cer- 
tainly), for so it is." So it is often used in questions, because an 
additional member may always easily be supposed ; as, for exam- 
ple, " I know " " I believe," 11 1 can not do it," &c. Thus, Horn., Od., 
x., 501, 7 £2 KipKv, 7lq yap ravrnv 66bv rjyefiovevaet ; " Circe, (I can 
not go thither), for who will guide me on this way V By the fre- 
quency of this kind of interrogative use, it gradually lost its proper 
force, and came to be employed simply to strengthen a question, 
like the Latin nam in quisnam. 



396 



CONJUNCTIONS* 



2. In snch expressions as teal yap, aXka yap, &c., the former par- 
ticle indicates an omission of something, for which yap assigns a 
cause; and hence nal yap, when closely translated, means, " and 
{no wonder), for," "and (this was natural), for," &c. So in aXka yap, 
we must say, when rendering literally, " but {this was impossible), 
for" "but (this happened otherwise), for" &c. The context will al- 
ways, of course, suggest the proper ellipsis. 

PE. 

1. Te, an enclitic particle, emphatically heightens the word which 
it follows above the rest of the clause, and thus strengthens the idea 
of the same. It is frequently joined to pronouns, particularly per- 
gonal ones ; as, eyuye, " I, at least, 11 "I, for my part. 11 It is often, 
too, put in combination with other particles, from which it usually 
stands separated by one or more words ; as, ye 6rj, " really, 11 " cer- 
tainly ;" ye rot, " at least," " however. 11 

2. Generally, also, ye is used in rejoinders and answers, either to 
confirm or restrict ; and likewise in exhortations, to render them 
more impressive. But in English it often happens that the sense of 
ye, in its various combinations, can only be indicated by heightening 
the tone of the word to which it refers. 

AE. 

1. The particle 6e is always placed after one or more words in a 
clause, and properly signifies " but, 11 both as distinguishing and op- 
posing. Very often, however, it serves to mark a transition from 
one proposition to another ; and, generally speaking, every proposi- 
tion which has no other conjunction at its commencement takes 
this Se, whether it be really opposed to the preceding or not, par- 
ticularly in enumerations. In such cases, therefore, it generally re- 
mains untranslated in English. In the ancient form of the language, 
especially in Homer, it often stands for " and and it is also used 
on some occasions, in the old poets, to explain what goes before, in 
which cases it answers to yap, "for. 11 

2. The principal use of 6e, however, is its opposition to fiiv. The 
opposition in which one member of a sentence stands to another can 
be stronger or slighter. The Greeks in both cases use [liv and 66 
for connection ; but in English we can only employ the particles 
" indeed" and " but 11 to designate the stronger opposition ; and hence 
we are often deficient in definite expressions for the Greek fiiv and 
de, which we then translate sometimes by "and, 11 "also; 11 some- 
times by "partly — partly" "as well-— as also" &c. 



COtfjtfNCTIONg, 



mi 



3. When fiev is put in the first member of a sentence, the thought 
necessarily turns to an opposite member with de. Several cases, 
nevertheless, occur where, with juev preceding, the expected 6e does 
not actually appear. Namely* either (1.) the antithesis to the mem- 
ber formed with fiev expressly exists, but declares itself so clearly 
by the position and subject that 6k can he omitted. This is chiefly 
the case when temporal and local adverbs are used, which stand in 
a natural opposition between themselves ; as, evravda and ekel, npti* 
tov and insLra, &c. Or (2.) the antithesis lies only in the mind, but 
is not expressly assigned in the discourse. This is chiefly the case 
when personal and demonstrative pronouns are used at the begin- 
ning of a proposition, in combination with \iev ; as, kyi*> jllev npoyprj- 
uai, " J have formed the resolution" (another probably not). Kal 
ravra jnev 6rj tolclvto,, " these things are so circumstanced" (but others 
differently). Or (3.) the antithesis is indicated by another particle ; 
as, aXKa, avrap, aire, &C. 

*H. 

1. The primary use of rj is disjunctive, and its sense is " or" 
Next to its disjunctive use is that connected with doubt or delibera- 
tion, where it has the meaning of "whether — or;" as, fiep/ur/pii-ev fj 
bye 'Arpeidnv kvapt^oi, tje xo^Kov TravoEisv, " he pondered whether he 
should slay Atrides or calm his wrath." 

2. The particle rj is also frequently used in a question, when a 
preceding and indefinite question is made more definite ; as, rig ovv 
fiot aTroKptvetrai ; f) 6 vEuraroc ; " Who, then, will answer me ? the 
youngest V Even in its interrogative sense, however, this particle 
still retains, in fact, its disjunctive meaning, as will be apparent if 
we supply as an ellipsis before it, " Am I wrong in my conjecture ? " 
Thus, in the passage just quoted, we may say, * 4 Am I wrong in my 
surmise, or is it the youngest ?" 

? H. 

1. The primary and true sense of tj is that of affirmation. It is 
explained, therefore, by ovroc, aXndcbg, " in reality" " in truth" Its 
affirmation, however, affects whole sentences or propositions ; as, 
7j fMeya &avjLLa rod*' btydalfiolOLv dpufiai, "assuredly I see in this a 
great wonder for the eyes." 

2. In the combination t) yap it is remarkable that the former par- 
ticle affects the latter. This happens because yap is always a sub- 
junctive particle j and thus y is confirmatory of the causal significa- 
tion of yap; as in Priam's words (// , xxii , 532), where, after giving 



398 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



order to keep the city gates open for the reception of his routed 

forces, he adds the reason, y yap 'Axihhevc eyyvc ode kXoveuv "for 
see, too surely is Achilles near throwing all things into confusion.'' 1 So 
Calchas (//., i., 78) gives a reason for bespeaking the protection of 
Achilles ; rj yap btofiat dvSpa xo^cofjefiev, k. r. X., " for I assuredly do 
think that I will make that man angry, 1 '' &c. 

3. In the combination rj nov the particle y is affirmative and ttov 
conjectural, and hence the two, when combined, express a degree 
of probability bordering on certainty. They do not, however, co- 
alesce into one word, for, if they did, rj would have the acute accent. 
We must render rj ttov by " in all probability" " doubtless" 11 unless 
I am very much mistaken" &c. 

KAI. 

1. As particles for uniting together the members of a proposition, 
the Greeks make use of Kat and the enclitic re, the use and distinc- 
tion of which are pointed out in the following observations : 

2. Kat and re serve for the simple union both of single ideas and 
of entire parts of a sentence. The connection by re is more usual 
in the elder and poetic language than in Attic prose, and generally 
this particle is not merely put once between the two ideas to be con- 
nected, but joined to each of the connected parts ; as, rcarrjp dvdptiv 
re "&euv re, "the father of both gods and men." This connection by 
re—re occurs with Attic prose writers only in the union of strongly 
opposed ideas ; as, tyepetv XPV 76 daipovta avaynaicje rd re and rdv 
woXe/jLlcjv dvdpe'ioc, " we must bear the dispensations of the gods as a 
matter of necessity, and the inflictions of our foes with a spirit of manly 
resistance." With Homer, however, frequently, and with the Attic 
poets rarely, re — re are used in the union of kindred ideas. If more 
than two ideas are connected, Homer proceeds with the repetition 
of re : as, in II., i., 177, alel yap rot epic re tytkn, Tx6\e\Lot re, [idxat 
re : or, after having several times repeated re, then uses Kat ; as, 
Od., iii., 413, seq., 'Exfypuv re, ^Zrparwc re, Hepaevg r', 'Kpnroe re, 
fcai dvrtdeoc Qpacvptr/dnc ; or interchangeably re, Kat, re. 

3. The particles re Kac connect more closely than the simple Kac, 
and are chiefly used when ideas are to be represented as united in 
one supposition. Hence this kind of combination is also chiefly 
used, when opposite ideas are to be assigned as closely connected ; 
as, x?^ 70 ' 1 Te Ka *- Kovqpoi. — ay add re Kat KaKa. For this reason we 
say dTCKwe re ko£ (both in other respects and also), "particularly also," 
" especially," because uXKac already expresses a natural and strong 
antithesis to that which follows. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



399 



4. The combination Kat — Kat, " as well — as," " both — and," can 
only be adopted when the combined ideas are of different kinds, but 
never in those which are perfectly homogeneous. Hence several 
substantives can always be connected by Kat — Kat ; as, dneKreivav 
fcai natdac teal yvvatKac. But, in the case of adjectives, only those 
which contain nothing homogeneous in their idea ; as, dvdpioirovc 
Evprjoete Kat dyadove, ical KaKovg, or Kat nevnrag Kat iz/iovoLovg, and 
the like ; not noTitc Kat (leydTin Kat no?ivdv6pG)7rog, but iieyd'kn re Kal 
KoTivdvOpuirog. 

IIEP. 

Hep is an enclitic, and in signification closely allied to ye. Tt de- 
notes, conformably to its derivation from wept, comprehension or 
inclusion, and hence, like ye, it is employed to strengthen single 
ideas. It very frequently enters into combination with relative pro- 
nouns, as also with temporal, causal, and conditional particles, to 
confirm their signification. The sense of this particle is generally, 
as in the case of ye, indicated in English merely by a stronger into- 
nation of the word, although it may frequently also be translated by 
"very" "ever." In combination with a participle, we often trans- 
late it by "although" or " how much soever." Thus, \eyet, anep Tie- 
yet, dUata ndvra, " he says all, whatever he does say, justly ;" firjTe cv 
Tovd', dyadoc nep euv, diroatpeo Kovpr/v, " nor do thou, excellent though 
thou art, deprive him of the virgin ;" i. e., be thou never so excellent, 
however excellent thou art ; evdvc nopeverat rrpoc Kvpov yirep etyev, 
" he proceeds straightway unto Cyrus, just as he was." 

IK22. 

1. The particle izibc, when circumflexed, is interrogative, and sig- 
nifies " how ?" The combination n&c ydp is employed as an em- 
phatic negative, "not at all" Thus, n&c ydp izotrjcu), " I will not do 
it at all ;" literally, "for how shall I do it 1" In the same way Kat n&g 
is used ; as, Kat nfic atoiru ; " / can not be silent ;" literally, " and how 
am I to be silent ?" 

2. As an enclitic, nog signifies " somehovi," "in some degree" &c. ; 
as, dXkug noc, " in some other way ;" ode ttqc, " somehow thus," &c. 

<S22. 

1. The particle o>g is sometimes used for tva, to denote a purpose ; 
as, <hg det^ofiev, "in order that we may show." Occasionally, as in 
the case of tva, the word is omitted, the purpose of which is to be 
expressed ; as, ug 6* dXrjdf} Myo), Kalet ptot rovg fidprvpag, " but that 
thou mayst see that I speak the truth, call for me the witnesses." 



400 



CONJUNCTIONS 



2. It is also used for on, with the meaning of " that as, tefefa 
Teg, cog kfceivog ye ov Trohepel iroTiei, " saying) that he does not wake 
war upon the city." 

3. It is also used with the meaning of 11 as" which is its more 
ordinary acceptation. Sometimes the tragic writers repeat the word 
that precedes cog when signifying " as, 11 and this is done when the 
speaker, from unpleasant recollections, does not choose to be more 
precise. Thus, 67icohev 6c 5Xco2,ev, " he has perished as he has perish* 
ed;" i. e., he has perished ; no matter how. 

4. With the acute accent, it is used in the sense of ovroc, and 
then stands at the beginning of propositions. This usage is very 
frequent in Homer ; as, cog drrcov. We must be careful, however, 
not to confound cog for ovrcog, with cog changed to cog because follow- 
ed by an enclitic, nor with tig placed after a word fcn which it de- 
pends) and receiving, in consequence, the tone or accent ; as, tiebg 
cog, " as a god." 

5. It is often used in exclamations, with the signification of 
"how;" as, cog ce paKapi^ofiev ! " how happy we deem you!" fipoToig 
ipcoreg d)g Kanbv fiiya ! " how great an evil is love to mortals /" On 
this is founded the use of cog with optatives* in the sense of the Latin 
utinam, " / wish ;" as cog p! ocpeV "E«rwp Krelvat ! " would that Hector 
had slain me /" literally, " how Hector ought to have slain me /" 

6. It is put, like on. before superlative adjectives and adverbs, and 
strengthens the meaning ; as, 6g raxiara, " as quickly as possible. 11 

7. In many cases thg came to be regarded as nothing more than 
a mere strengthening particle, and hence we have the idioms, 6g 
aXndcog, " truly ;" cog arexvcog, " entirely ," &c. 

8. It is often used in limiting propositions with the infinitive ; as, 
cog einuoai, "as far as one may conjecture ;" cog Ipoiye doKetv, "as far 
as appears to me at least ;" cog eiTreiv, "so to speak." 

9. It is frequently found in this same sense with prepositions fol- 
lowing ; as, cog an* bjupdrcov, " to judge by the eye ;" cog em to noTiv, 
"for the most part." Hence it is often used in comparisons; as, 
dnitTTov to TtTiffiog %eyerai anoleodat, cbg Trpbg to ph/F.Oog rfjg TroXecog, 
"an incredible number are said to have perished) in proportion to the 
size of the city." 

10. It is elegantly joined to participles in the genitive absolute, 
and the participle must then be rendered, in English, by a tense of 
the verb; as, cog Tavrrjg Trig x^P ac exvpcorciTng ovang- "Because this 
place was the most secure." Sometimes, also, it is connected with 
the accusative or dative of the participle. In these constructions 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



401 



with the participle, whether in the genitive, dative, or accusative, it 
has the force of a*, since, because, inasmuch as, as if, &c. 

11. It also has the meaning of "when" as a particle of past time; 
as, ug de 7)We, " but when he came." And sometimes, also, the force 
of "while." 

12. With numerals it signifies "about;" as, 6c reaoapaKovra, "about 
forty;" &g rpia rj rerrapa arddta, "about three or four stadia." 

13. It is sometimes put, especially by Attic writers, instead of the 
preposition eig, rtpbg, or km. In truth, however, the preposition in 
such instances must always be regarded as understood, while tig 
retains in translation nothing of its original meaning. It must be 
remarked, however, that o>g, when put for eig, npog, or em, is gener- 
ally found with persons, and seldom with inanimate things. The 
primitive meaning of o>g npog, 6g eig, &c., is "as toward," "as to" 
and the particle serves to indicate that the preposition must not be 
taken in a strict and definite sense. Hence, when 6g alone appears, 
with the preposition understood, it always implies that the approach 
is made with some degree of timidity or reverence. Thus, 6g robg 
tieovg, "unto the gods ;" u>g tov fiacikea, "to the king." In this lies 
the reason why o>g is seldom ever construed in this way with the 
names of places or things, but generally with animate objects. 



IX. PREPOSITIONS. 
(Vid. Syntax, page 460.) 



X. FORMATION OF WORDS. 



The doctrine of the formation of words will come in 
more naturally after the Rules of Syntax. The student is 
referred, therefore, to page 498. 

Ll2 



402 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 



CHAPTER IV. 

OF SYNTAX. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

I. Syntax is the doctrine of the sentence. 

II. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words ; 
as, to podov -frdXXei, " the rose blooms 6 dvdpconog tiv^Tog 
eonv, " man is mortal :" to kclXov podov ddXXet ev tgj tov 
dv0pG)Tcov icrjTCG), " the beauteous rose blooms in the garden 
of the manP 

III. In every thought or proposition there must necessa- 
rily be two notions or ideas related to one another and com- 
bined into one whole, namely, the notion of an action, and 
the notion of an object in which the action is perceived; 
the former we call the predicate ; the latter, the subject. 

IV. The subject is either, 1. A substantive ; as, to podov 
&dXXet, " the rose blooms or, 2. A substantive pronoun or 
numeral ; as, eyo) ypdcpo), " / write rpslg fjXdov, " three 
came /" or, 3. An adjective or participle used as a substan- 
tive ; as, 6 oo<pdg evda[p,G)v earlv, " the wise man is happy 
or, 4. An adverb invested with the force of a substantive 
by means of an article prefixed ; as, oi ndXat dvdpelot fjaav, 
" the men of old were valiant or, 5. A preposition in con- 
nection with its case ; as, oi ovv rjfuv fcaXtic, efidxovro, 
" those with us fought nobly or, 6. An infinitive mood ; 
as, to dtddaneiv dyaOov eon, " to teach is good or, last- 
ly, every word, every letter, every syllable, every combina- 
tion of words, may be conceived of as a neuter substantive, 
and hence may appear as a subject, usually in connection 
with the neuter form of the article ; as, to el ovvdeofiog 
ear iv, " the (word) el is a conjunction." 

V. The predicate is either, 1. A verb; as, to podov 
■ddXXei, " the rose blooms or, 2. An adjective, substan- 



THE NOMINATIVE AND THE VERB. 



403 



tive, numeral, or pronoun, in conjunction with elfit, which 
last, in this relation, is usually called a copula, or particle 
of affirmation, since it combines the adjective or substan- 
tive with the subject into one whole thought ; as, to podov 
naXov eoTLV, " the rose is handsome Kvpog fjv paotXevg, 
" Cyrus was king 2t> fjoda frdvrcjv irptirog, " thou wast 
first of all 0/ avdpeg rjoav rpelg, " the men were three 
tovto to npdyfid eon rode, " this very thing is thus" 

Remark. A distinction, however, must be carefully noted 
with regard to ei/ii, which is this : When it expresses a defi- 
nite idea, such as that of existing, abiding, &c, the accent is 
placed on the first syllable, and the meaning becomes more or 
less emphatic ; as, egtl Oeog, " there is a God ;" but when 
merely used as a copula, the accent remains on the last sylla- 
ble of egtl. In the former signification elfii may be joined 
with an adverb ; as, 6 ZufcpaTr/c rjv ael gvv tolq veolc, " Socrates 
was always with the young kcOi&q egtlv, " it is well. 11 



I. THE NOMINATIVE AND THE VERB. 

Rule I. The nominative case is the subject of the verb ; 
as, 

To podov -&d\\ei, the rose blooms. 
'Eyw ypd(f)G), I write. 

Tpelg fjWov, three came. 

Remark 1. The nominative of the personal pronoun is usually 
omitted with the personal terminations of verbs, as in Latin, 
except where an emphasis is required ; as, ypafa, I write ; leyu, 
I say, &c. ; but uTCka iravrog ical gv oipet avTTjv, " you, however, 
by all means, will even see her" 

Remark 2. The nominative is often omitted when the verb 
itself expresses the customary action of the subject ; as, cak- 
Trivet, " the trumpeter sounds his trumpet," where 6 GaX'KLKTric (the 
trumpeter) is implied ; eicrjpv^e, " the herald made proclamation," 
where 6 KrjpvZ is implied. 

Remark 3. When the subject is easily supplied from the con- 
nection ; thus, in expressions like QaGl, leyovGL, &c., the subject 
avdpuTcoL is regularly omitted, as being self-evident. 

Remark 4 The indefinite pronoun one, they (French on, Ger- 



404 THE NOMINATIVE AND THE VERB. 



man man) is expressed in Greek by rig, or the 3d person plu- 
ral ; as, Tieyovoi, <j>aai: or by the 3d person singular passive ; as, 
Ti^yerat : or personally, \zyo\iai, dicor ; or by the 2d person sin- 
gular, particularly in the optative with uv ; as, tyaing uv, " one 
may say." 

Rule II. A verb agrees with its nominative in number 
and person ; as, 

Sufcpdrrjc e(f>7], Socrates said. 

'O(j)0a,X{iG) XafineTov, the two eyes shine. 
KaradovoLv bpvldeg, birds sing. 

Remark I. When the subject consists of several persons or 
things singly specified, and which follow the verb, the latter 
often stands in the singular ; as, egtl nal kv uXkacg ttoIeglv ap~ 
Xovreg te Kal drjfiog, " there are in other cities also both magistrates 
and a commons." Here, if upxovreg stood alone, the verb would 
necessarily be eioi. 

Remark 2. Instances frequently occur where the nominative 
stands without a verb ; in these some part of elvai is generally 
understood ; as, "EXTinv ey6, " I (am) a Greek" supply elfii. 
This is most frequently the case with eroi/iog, and with verbals 
in -TF-ov. 

Remark 3. The most remarkable construction to be alluded 
to here is that in which the nominative is converted into an 
accusative, and made to depend upon another verb ; olda oe rig 
cZ, "I know thee viho thou art" for olda rig oh el, "I know who 
thou art." So, again, fiadwv fori Karafiadelv rrjv x&pav 7]fi(jv, on 
dvvarai Tpfyetv avdpag dyaOovg, " it is easy to perceive our coun- 
try, that it is able to rear brave men" for padtov hart Karafiadelv 
otl ij x^P a yi l &v dvvarai rpeQeiv, &c., " it is easy to perceive that 
our country is able to rear," &c. 

Rule III. When there are two or more nominatives con- 
nected by a conjunction, the verb is put in the plural ; as, 
Q'lXitxttoc Kal ' AXet-avdpog evinnoav, Philip and Alexander 
conquered. 

2,G)Kpd,T7jc; feat HXdrcjv rjcfav ao<f)ot, Socrates and Plato were 
wise. 

Rule IV. Sometimes, however, when two or more sub- 
stantives are connected by a conjunction, the verb which 



THE NOMINATIVE AND THE VERB. 



405 



belongs to all, instead of being in the plural, is found to 
agree with only one of these substantives, and usually with 
that one which is nearest to it, and the most important in 
the sentence ; as, 



Remark. When two or more substantives are united by 
" or," which reciprocally exclude each other, the verb is in the 
singular, if that which is said applies to one alone of these, not 
to both alike ; but in the plural, if it belongs equally to both, 
and it is indifferent to which it is ascribed ; as, el di k' 'Kprjg 
apxucL puxv? ? $oi6og ' knolluv. (i/., xx., 13S.) — So, in Cicero 

(Or., ii., 4, 16), " ne Sulpicius aut Cotta plus quam ego 

apud te valere videantur" 

Rule V. When several nominatives of different persons 
are connected together, the first person is preferred to the 
second and third, but the second person to the third person ; 
and the verb, moreover, is put in the plural ; as, 

'Eyo> Kal av ypdcpopev, I and thou write. 

'Eyw Kal etcelvog ypdcpopev, I and he write. 

2i> feat enelvoi ypdfyere, thou and they write. 

'Hpelg Kal knelvot ypd<po(j.ev, we and they write. 

r Y(j,elg teal enelvog ypdepere, you and he write. 

Rule VI. Collective nouns and words, that is, nouns and 
words which express multitude or number, and thus in- 
clude the idea of several subjects, often take the verb in 
the plural ; as, 

To OTparonedov dvsx&povv, the army retired. 

ILoXv yevog avOpdjirov xp&vrai rovroig, a large class of 

men use these. 
"EKaorog enLoraoOe, ye each know. 

Remark 1. Sometimes eKaarog in the singular is added to a 
noun or pronoun plural as an apposition, or a more exact defini- 
tion ; as, ol 6e Kkfipov hari^vavTo iKaaroc, " they thereupon mark- 
ed each a lot." (II., vii., 175.) 



Sol yap edoorce vlktjv Zevg 
Kpovtdrjg Kal 'AnoXXov. 



For unto thee has Jove, the 
son of Saturn, given vic- 
tory, and Jl polio. 



406 THE NOMINATIVE AND THE VERB. 



Remark 2. The plural verb is also frequently employed in 
the formula aklodev a/Mof, as well as in other phrases where 
dXTiog occurs ; as, 6Xo?Lvy/j,dv iih'koQ uXkodev bXaonov, " they raised, 
a loud, lament, one from on one side, another from another :" qpuruv 
u?iXog a/\/to, " they asked, one one thing, another another." 



Rule VII. A dual nominative is very often joined with 
a plural verb ; as, 

Avo avdpe sfiaxeoavro, two men fought. 

'AdeX^cb dvo rjoav tcahot, there were two handsome brothers. 

*A(ji,(pG) Xeyovoi, both say. 

Remark 1. The dual is not always used when two objects 
are spoken of, but only when they are either two things con- 
nected together by nature; as, node, " two feet;" x eL P e i "two 
hands wre, " two ears or such as are considered as standing 
in a close and mutual relation to each other ; as, ade?i<p6, "two 
brothers or when two things are considered in animo loquentis 
as forming a pair for the time being ; as, for example, two com- 
batants. 

Remark 2. Very frequently, particularly in poetry, the dual 
and plural are used indifferently in the same passage, especially 
with participles ,* as, rol 6' idpti aneipvxovTo x lT &vuv ctclvte ttotI 
irvolrjv. (II. , xl, 621.) So, in Plato (Euthyd., p. 273, D.), kyela- 
cdrrjv yovv afj,<f)0) /3MtpavTec elc aXkrjhu. 



Rule VIII. A dual verb is joined with a plural subject, 
or with several subjects when the persons or things signi- 
fied by the plural, or by the several subjects, are spoken or 
conceived of in such a way as to form a pair, or two pairs ; 
as, 

Avg) 3e oi vleeg rjornv (J/., v., 10), now there were two sons 
unto him. 



Zdvde re real ov Uodapys, 
Kal AWg)v Admire re 

6U, VVV \LOl T7]V KO\Ll- 

dfjv dnoTLverov (17., 
viii., 185), 



Do thou, Xanthus, as well as 
thou, Podargus, and thou, 
JEthon, and thou, divine 
Lampus, now pay me back 
the care. 



Remark. Matthiae observes that sometimes, though seldom, 
the dual of the verb is put with the plural of the subject, even 



THE NOMINATIVE AND THE VERB. 



407 



when more than two persons are signified. The correctness 
of this assertion, however, is very properly denied by Blom- 
field. {Obs. ad Matth., Gr. Gr., p. 516, /. 8.) The true principle 
is laid down in the rule as j ust given. In the passage adduced as 
the second example, the horses of Hector are supposed to form 
two pairs or sets. In II., iv., 452, the winter-torrents are com- 
pared to two combatants. In ^Eschylus, Eumen., 256, the 
• chorus are considered as divided into two parts (jjpixopia). In 
the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (v. 456), Apollo is speaking to the 
rowers, who sit in two rows, one on each side of the ship. 
And, finally, in Pindar, 01., ii., 87, the true reading is yapverov, 
the poet alluding to a couple of slanderous rivals, Simonides 
and Bacchylides. 

Rule IX. A neuter plural is regularly joined with a sin- 
gular verb ; as, 

"Ao-pa fyaiverai) stars appear. 
Tavrd eotlv ay add, these things are good. 

Remark 1. This construction also occurs in adverbial formu- 
las with the participle ; as, dot-av ravra, " these things having 
appeared good." (Xen., Anab., iv., 1, 3.) — On the contrary, 
however, we have dogavra de ravra in Xen., Hell, iii., 2, 19. 

RexMark 2. The dual neuter is also joined with a singular 
verb; as, ev de oi oooe daierai (Od., vi., 131), the neuter dual 
being considered as a neuter plural. Compare oooe (ftaeiva (II., 
xiii., 435): oooe alfiaroevra (Id., 617): altcifia dovpe (II., xiv., 
139). But this construction does not appear to have been 
usual. 

Remark 3. The principle of the construction given in the 
rule is this, that the neuter plural was conceived to express a 
class as one individual thing, a whole collective unity, all no- 
tion of the individuality of the several members of the whole 
being lost sight of. Where the notion of individuality is meant 
to be expressed, the plural is used, as will appear from the suc- 
ceeding rule. 

Rule X. But when the neuter plural refers to persons 
or animate things, and the notion of individuality is intend- 
ed to be expressed, the verb is put in the plural, because 
persons are, for the most part, considered separately by the 
mind, but things as forming a class ; a3, 



408 THE NOMINATIVE AND THE VERB* 



Td reXrj vneaxovro, the magistrates promised. 

Toadde jisv fisra 'Adrjvatov ) So many nations served with ) 
idvT) eorpdrevov, S the Athenians. $ 

Remark L In the example first given, which is taken from 
Thucydides (i., 58), the best MSS. read vneax^ro. If we adopt 
this lection, the meaning will be, " the cabinet promised. ,, 

Remark 2. When the neuter plural, moreover, does not ex- 
press living objects, but the individuality or plurality of the 
parts is to be signified, the verb is likewise put in the plural ; 
as, (pavepa rjaav nal IkttcuV koI avdpuTrcjv Ixvn izoXka, "many 
tracks were apparent of' both horses and men.'' 1 (Xen., Anab., i., 7, 
17) : — evravda fjaav ra Svevveaioc jiauCXeia, u there was the palace 
of Sycnnesis," i. e., the various buildings forming one combined 
palace. (Xen., Anab., i., 2, 23.) 

Remark 3. The non- Attic poets, from Homer downward, use 
the plural very often merely for the sake of the metre; as, 
ajifjxcLva epya yevovro. (J/., xi., 310.) — Both constructions oc- 
cur together in the following passage : am 6% dovpa aearjne ve&v 
teal andpra XeXwrac. (II., ii., 135.) 

Rule XI. A masculine or feminine nominative, in the 
plural number, is sometimes joined with a verb in the sin- 
gular: as, 

"Yfivot re?^srat (Pind., 0/., xi. ? init.\ hymns arise. 
f AxEiTaL dfjicpai [leXeoyv (Hippon., Fragm.), the accents of 
melody sound forth. 
Remark 1. This construction is called o^/za Boiotlkov or 
TLivdapLKov (Dissen, Pind., 01., x., vi.), probably because mostly 
used by the Doric poets. The instances of it are rare. 

Remark 2. In Attic writers this construction is limited to 
kcTL and ijv, placed at the beginning of a sentence, so that the 
subject follows the verb, and the expression takes an impersonal 
form, like the French il est des hommes, il est cent usages, (fee- 
To this same head belongs the regular phrase eonv ol. 

Rule XII. Sometimes a nominative is put without any 
verb following, and is then called the nominative absolute; as, 
ILepae(j)aTTa de, ttoXXol fisv \ But Proserpina— many, in- \ 
nal rovro (podovvrac to > deed, even fear this very > 
ovofia. ) name. 7 



SUBSTANTIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVE, ETC. 409 



Remark 1. This is sometimes called the emphatic use of the 
nominative, a word of especial significance in the sentence be- 
ing placed in the beginning, in the nominative, to represent it 
emphatically as the fundamental subject of the whole sentence, 
though the grammatical construction require a dependent case. 

Remark 2. Another species of nominative absolute often oc- 
curs, where, in consequence of a parenthesis intervening, a new 
nominative is brought in, either for the sake of greater per- 
spicuity, or in consequence of a sudden change of construction ; 
as, UGirep oi adlnral ovx, otclv lolotuv yevuvrat Kpelrrovg, tovto 
avrovg evtypatvei, a/M,', brav tgjv avrayuviGrtiv rjTTOvg, tovt' av- 
rovg avid (Xen., Hier., 4, 6), for tovtu evtypalvovrai .... tovtu 
aviuvrai. 

Remark 3. For farther remarks on the nominative absolute, 
consult page 458, where the doctrine of absolute cases is con- 
sidered more at large. 



II. SUBSTANTIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVE, &c. 

Rule XIII. Substantives signifying, or referring to, the 
same person or thing, agree in case ; as, 

Kvpog 6 (3aoiAevg, Cyrus the king. 

liCJKpdrrjg 6 (pihoaocpog, Socrates the philosopher. 

Remark 1. This construction is called apposition, and is the 
identifying of one substantival notion with another, in order to 
define the latter more clearly. 

Remark 2. When the noun apposed is a personal noun, the 
two substantives agree also in gender ; as, Tofcvptg V ftaGiXiGGa, 
" Tomyris the queen.'' 1 

Remark 3. Plural forms, especially of abstract substantives, 
are put in apposition to a word in the singular. This is poetic, 
and gives emphasis and spirit to the passage. It is as early as 
Homer, especially in the word d&pa ; as, XP V(7 °? 7"P epvuane, 
d&pa -&EOLO (II., xx., 268), "for the gold restrained it, the (valued) 
gift of the god." So, Virgil, Mn., viii., 129, " Clypeum, Vul- 
cani dona parentis." 

Remark 4. One of the substantives is frequently understood, 
when some intimate and usual relation is expressed ; as, 'AAef- 
avdpog 6 QiTiinnov, " Alexander, the (son) of Philip" supply nalg 
or viog. — 'Olvfirciag rj ^eoizToXe^ov, " Olympias, the (daughter) of 
Neoptolemus," supply ftvyarnp. 

M M 



410 



SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 



Remark 5. Apposition is used, also, with the substantive pro- 
noun ; as, Tjfxelg oi co^ol, " we, the wise eKelvog b paaihevc, " he, 
the king.'" It extends, also, even to the personal pronoun implied 
in the verb ; as, Oe/LucroKhrjc tjkg) napd ae, " I, Themistocles, have 
come unto thee.'''' (Thucyd., i., 137.) 

Remark 6. When the apposition is used with a possessive 
pronoun, the apposed word is in the genitive, to agree with the 
genitive of the personal pronoun implied in the possessive ; as, 
kfibg rov ddXiov (Slog, " the life of me, the wretched one" where 
rod ddXcov is put in apposition with the genitive hfiov of the per- 
sonal pronoun, as implied in the possessive kfiog. So, also, gtj 
rfjc naTOi'tornc evfiopfyia, " the fair form of thee, the fairest " for 
aov rfjg KaWiarnq, &c. So, also, with adjectives derived from 
the names of persons ; as, Necropsy irapd vnt, HvXnyeveoc fiaoi- 
Ifjoc (11., ii., 54), where j3amXf}og is in apposition with Necropog, 
as implied in Necropsy. 



III. SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 

Rule XIV. An adjective agrees with its substantive in 
gender, number, and case ; and under the name of adjectives 
are here included, also, the article, pronominal adjectives, 
and participles ; as, 

"Avdpeg dyadot, good men, 

'OfjiiXiat Kauai, evil communications. 

"EOvea iroXXd, many nations. 

To epyov tov avdptinov, the deed of the man 

f O cog irarrjp nal rj sjirj fzrjrrjp, thy father and my mother. 

To Xeinofxevov [ispog, the remaining part. 

Remark 1. Sometimes the adjective is found not agreeing in 
gender and number with the substantive, but with the person 
or subject implied in the substantive. This is called the con- 
struction by synesis (Kara cvveatv), or ad intellectum ; as, rb 
fieipdntov eon KaXog, " the boy is good-looking rb yvva'uuov 
hen naTirj, " the little woman is handsome rd iraidiKa eari ma- 
roe, "the favorite is faithful." 

Remark 2. The construction by synesis arose from the meta- 
physical spirit of the Greeks, which enabled them, in the form 
of signification, to see clearly the notion signified ; and which, 
impressing itself strongly on the whole of their language, im- 



SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE, 



411 



parted to it a clearness and precision, in expressing the minu- 
test shades of distinction, which are scarcely comprehensible 
to the moderns, while at the same time it creates a number of 
grammatical anomalies, which at first seem to be defects, but 
are, in reality, founded on the truest principles of grammar. 

Rule XV. An adjective is often put in the neuter gen- 
der, without regard to the gender of the substantive which 
stands with it, when it indicates, not any particular indi- 
vidual of a class, but merely a general notion, and it re- 
mains in the singular even when the substantive is in the 
plural ; as, 

Ovk ayaddv fj noAVKoipavia, the government of the many is 
not good, 

Mera6oXal slot XvTrrjpov, changes are a sad thing. 

Remark 1. We have a similar construction in Latin, " varium 
et mutabile semper femina." (Virg., Mn., iv., 570 ) So, also, in 
abbreviated adjectival sentences ; as, h de dy ?Jatva, kbv ioxv- 
porarov kclI dpaovrarov, ana!; hv ru [31(f) tlktsi £v. (Herod. , iii., 
103.) 

Remark 2. When the predicate is expressed by a demon- 
strative pronoun, it very often stands in the neuter singular ; 
as, eon 6e rovro rvpavvig (Plat., Rep., p. 344, A.), " now this is 
tyranny.'' 1 And again, rovro kartv rj dinaioovvn (lb., p. 432, B.): 
so Demosth., p. 367, rovro yap noiv evOvvac. 

Remark 3. When the subject expresses an indefinite, general 
notion, the words ri, X9W a i ^payfia, Krfjfia, are frequently join- 
ed with the neuter adjective ; as, Herod., iii., 53, (j)L?.oriul7] KT7j/LLa 
onaiov ear i : and again, lb., rvpavvig xPW a <y$a?.ep6v. — So in 
Latin (Ov. ex Pont., ii., 7, 37), "res timida est omnis miser i" 
(Martial, Ep., x., 59), "res est imperiosa timor." — But we must 
be careful not to suppose, with some grammarians, an ellipsis 
of xpr}p.a, or some such word, whenever the neuter adjective 
stands alone, as the neuter has by itself the idea of generality 
or indefiniteness ; although in translating we often employ the 
word " thing,' 1 or something equivalent. 

Rule XVI. When an infinitive, or a whole sentence, 
stands as the subject, the adjective in the predicate is fre- 
quently in the plural instead of the singular. This is espe- 



412 



SUBSTTNTIVE AND ADJECTIVE* 



cially the case with verbal adjectives in -reoc and -ro£; 
as, 

^Kfivvrea tlvl egtlv, we must assist some one. 
Heard koTiv tlvl, we ought to trust some one. 

Rule XVII. In Attic Greek an adjective of the mascu- 
line gender is often found with a feminine noun of the dual 
number ; and under this rule are also included the pronoun, 
participle, and article ; as, 

"AfupG) tovtg) tg> rjfispa, both these two days. 

Avo yvvatae ept^ovre, two women quarreling. 

To) the two hands. 

Remark. It seems probable that the dual of the article, pro- 
noun, participle, and adjective had originally only one form for 
the masculine and feminine. The feminine dual of the article, 
namely, rd, is hardly ever found in good writers. 

Rule XVIII. When several subjects of the same gender 
occur, the adjective agreeing with them stands in that gen- 
der in the plural ; but when the subjects differ in gender, 
the masculine is preferred to the feminine, and the feminine 
to the neuter ; as, 

f O lojKpdrrjg icai 6 TLXdrov r\oav ao(f)OL, Socrates and Plato 
were wise. 

f H lirjTTjp Kal i] -&vydrr]p rjaav Kahat, the mother and the 

daughter were beautiful. 
f O dvr\p Kal rj yvvrj dyaOoC eloiv, the man and the woman 

are good. 

"KXoxol feat re/cva ixorL6iy\iEvai^ wives and children expect- 
ing. 

Remark 1. With names of inanimate things the neuter plural 
is frequently used, without any regard to the gender of the sub- 
jects (Xen.y Mem., § iii,, 1, 7) : TllOol re Kal tzICvOol, nal %v\a, Kal 
KEpafioc ar&KToc eppt.fifzeva ovdev xpriaiiid sgtiv, " stones as well as 
bricks and pieces of limber, and tiles, when thrown about in confu- 
sion, are useful in no respect." 

Remark 2. Sometimes an adjective which is common to 



SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 



413 



several subjects, is referred to only one of them, which is to be 
distinguished as the most significant or important ; as (J/., i , 
177), alec yap epic re ty'ikn, noTiefiot re [idxai re, "for ever are 
strife, and wars, and, battles dear to thee.' 91 



Rule XIX. Among the tragic writers, when a woman 
speaks of herself in the plural number, she uses the mascu- 
line ; and the masculine is also employed when a chorus 
of women are speaking of themselves ; as, 

fTT „ f n , , c We who die for thee (where ) 

Raeic 01 TTpoOvnofcovreg ae-\ . - . J v I 

a it? • ai * oqq\ \ Alcestis speaks of her- > 
dev(Eurtp.,Jilcest., 383),^ ^ r 

, , , /-n ( I pitied on having; heard ) 
QtttTEip' atcovoag (Lump., \ r \ t 

Mom., 4,22), j ( wW the choruS I 

( speak by their leader). J 

Remark 1. In the abstract plural notion the difference of sex 
is lost sight of, and the masculine is used as a more general ex- 
pression of personality. 

Remark 2. We must not class here the anomalous instances 
of masculine adjectives with feminine substantives, which were 
sometimes used by poetical license or carelessness ; as, Soph., 
Track., 207, kolvoc Kkayya-. and, again, JEschyl., Agam., 558, 
dpocoi ridevreg svdrjpov rplxa, &c. 



Rule XX. A substantive is sometimes joined with an- 
other word, and takes the place of an adjective ; as, 
f EAAd^ otoXtj (Soph., Phil., 223), Grecian attire. 
"EXXrjv yrj {Eur., Iph. 7 1 ., 342), Grecian land. 

Remark 1. This construction occurs mostly in poetry, and 
especially in the case of "ETlTlvv as masculine and feminine, 
and 'E/iXac as feminine. Compare the analogous English forms 
of expression, wine-glass, steam-boat, &c. 

Remark 2. In prose, on the other hand, we find many per- 
sonal nouns, which express a station or profession, used as ad- 
jectives ; and the word avrjp is added to them when the person 
is viewed as belonging to such a state or profession, or else is 
omitted when he is regarded only as performing the functions 
of such a station or profession ; as, avrjp fiavrte, a man who is 
by profession a prophet ; but fidvrtg, a man who acts as a 
Mm 2 



414 



SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 



prophet. So, avrjp fiaaikzv<;, avdpec dtaaGTat, &c. — In expres- 
sions of contempt, avOponog is used ; as, dvdpunog yeupyog. 



KaXovai 6' 'lofcdorrjv fie 
tovto yap narrip e6ero < 
(Eur., Phcen. % 12). 



Harp&a #' earta rcarsa 
Kac/)?], avrbg 6e mrv€L < 
(Eur., Hec, 22). 



Rule XXI. Adjectives and pronouns are often referred, 
in respect of gender, to words which are implied in a pre- 
ceding word, from the sense of that word or its peculiar 
composition; as, 

And they call me Jocasta ; 
for this (name) my fa- 
ther gave me. (Where 
bvofia is implied from 
naXovoi.) 
And my paternal home was 
razed to the ground, 
while he himself falls. 
(Where irarrjp is implied 
from Trarpcoa.) 

Remark. So in Homer (II., ix., 383), Qfj6at at EKaro/Lnrvlol 
e'un, ditjKOGWL d' av' eKaarr/v avepeg elgolxvevgl, where 7cvXnv is 
to be implied from EKaTopirvTioi, and supplied after eKaarr/v. 
And in Herodotus (iv., 110), evtvxovgcu 6e Trpwrw inTrocpopStG}, 
tovto dcTjpTrciGav ' nal knl tovtcjv imraC,6(iEvai E\n%ovTO to, t&v 
SkvOeuv, where Imzuv must be understood after tovtov, as im- 
plied from inTcoQopdtG). 



Rule XXII. Instead of the adjectives being considered, 
as in other languages, epithets of the substantives, and put 
in the same case with them, the substantive in Greek is 
often regarded as the whole, and the adjective as a part ; 
and then the substantive is put in the genitive. In these 
constructions the adjective has the gender of the substan- 
tive ; as, 

Oi xprjOTOL rojv dvSpcdncjv, the worthy ones of men. 
9 Kfieyapra K,aic6)V, unenviable ones of evils. 

Remark. To this class belong such expressions as Sia yv~ 
vclikuv, 11 divine one of women apidELKETog dvdptiv, " renowned 
one of men :" Takaiva Trapdivuv, u unhappy one of maidens" &c. 
The subject, however, properly belongs to the head of partitive 
genitives. 



SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 



415 



Rule XXIII. An adjective or participle in the neuter 
gender, without a substantive, governs the genitive ; as, 
Meoov rjuepag, the middle of the day. 

To rerpafAfievov tgjv j3ap6dpo)v, the routed portion of the 
barbarians,. 

Remark 1. This rule is sometimes erroneously regarded as 
merely a branch of the one that precedes. In fact, however, 
the adjective here assumes a substantival force, and the sub- 
stantive to which the adjective properly belongs is put in the 
genitive, defining the adjective instead of being denned by it. 

Remark 2. The adjective most commonly is in the neuter 
singular. Sometimes, however, it occurs in the neuter plural ; 
as, en* apiorepa x £L p6s* " on the left hand" (Od., v., 277) : ra noX- 
Xa T7j<; x^P ^) "the greater part of the country" (Herod., v., 58). 

Remark 3. The adjective which should be in the neuter is 
also found agreeing with the gender of the substantive ; as, ij 
tzq'ATit] tt}<; TLe?\.o'xovvr}GQv, for to 7to?,v T7}c Tle?,o'Kovvfioov . This 
is a pure Attic construction, but used more in prose than in 
poetry. The word r/fitcvc is very often so used. So, also, ttoA- 
vc, ttTieIcjv, ^"kelaroc, and other superlatives. Thus, 6 fyiiove 
rov xpovov : so, also (JEsch., Eum., 422), 7](iiovc Xoyov : (Thucyd., 
v., 31), knl ry r/fiLGeta rfjg yfjc : (Id., vii., 3), ttjv ttTielcttiv rfjc 
crrpaTLuc : (Xen., Cyrop., iii., 2, 2), tto\at) Trjg xup a £ : ana * m 
Herodotus likewise (i., 24), rov tzoaXov rov xpovov, &c. 

Remark 4. In poetry sometimes, very rarely indeed in prose, 
a masculine or feminine substantive in the genitive is joined 
with a neuter plural adjective ; as (Soph., (E. C, 923), ocjtuv 
ddAtcov tKTT/pia for ocbrac adAiovg Urnptovg : (Eur., Phozn., 1500), 
d6pa napntdoc, &c. This is more common in Latin verse and 
post-Augustan prose ; as, vilia rerum (Horat.). 

Rule XXIV. Proper names in the singular are often ac- 
companied by the adjectives -nptirog, nag, and others, in 
the neuter plural, as predicates, or in apposition ; as, 
AloxivTjg eoyv t£>v ^~Eperpteo)v rd npajra (Herod.), JEschines 

being the leading man of the Eretrians. 
Olfiat vfjtdg rd TTptir 1 eoeodai (Eurip.), I think that you 

will be the foremost. 
*Hv ol ev tw Xoyo) rd rrdvra f] K.VV& (Herod.), Cyno was 

every thing in his story. 



416 



SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 



Remark. Similar to this is ra ^"Xrara, by which every thing 
is designated which is especially dear to a man, his wife, chil- 
dren, &c, an only son. Thus (Soph.. Phil., 435), Udrponlog 
6g gov rrarpog ijv ra tyikiara, " Patroclus, who was the favorite of 
thy father:" (Eurip., Troad., 375), 6 orparvybg . . . to, (pt^Taf 
dj/Ucre, i. e., " his daughter." 

Rule XXV. Adjectives are very often put in the neuter 
singular and plural, with and without an article, for ad- 
verbs ; as, 

HpG)Tov y in the first place. 
To rrpcorov, at first. 
'JZTTiTTjdsg, purposely. 
Qaidpa, cheerfully. 

Remark. The difference between Trptirog and rrpdrov, /uovog 
and /uovov, will appear from the following : thus, irptirog ttjv 
kiTLOTolrjv edeit-a, " I am the first that showed the letter ;" but 7rpw- 
rov ttjv, &c, " I showed the letter first." So, fiovog ttjv kniGroTvrjv 
eypaipa, " I alone wrote the letter but fiovov vqv, &c, " I only 
wrote the letter" i. e., it is the only thing that I did. 

Rule XXVI. Adjectives also, in the masculine and fem- 
inine gender, are frequently put for adverbs, especially 
among the poets ; as, 

Tol dyx^orlvoL emirrov (Horn.), they kept falling near 
one another. 

Zevg %Bi^bg edrj nara Sacra (Id.), Jove went yesterday to a 
banquet. 

"TTTOOTTOvdot dnxieaav, they departed under the sanction of a 
truce. 

Remark I. So, cKorialog, "in the dark:" rerapratog, 11 on the 
fourth day :" Tzefnrralog, " 071 the fifth day :" izavvvxiog, " all night 
long :" xpov log, "after a long time:" cvxvol, "in numbers:" 
izkayiog, "obliquely :" fiereupog, "on high:" tiaTidacnog, "into the 
sea," &c. 

Remark 2. This mode of employing adjectives for adverbs 
imparts greater energy to the expression, the attributive of the 
verb, that is, the adverb, being considered as the attributive of 
the substantive. 



SLfBSYANTiVfi AND ADJECTIVE. 417 



Rule XXVII. When the substantive expresses a general 
notion, or one which is easily supplied from the context, or 
from the usages of common speech, it is generally omitted, 
and the adjective with the article is used as a substantive ; 
as, 

0/ oocfroi, the wise (supply avdpeg). 

'Ev tovtg), during this time (supply i x / p6viS), 
varepata, on the following day (supply rjfjLepa). 
de^a, on the right (supply %£tpL)> 
Td rjiierepa, our affairs (supply rrpdyixara). 
To evG)W[iov, the left wing (supply rcepag). 

Remark 1. The nouns most commonly omitted are the fol- 
lowing : avOpuiroc, avdpcjnoi, avrjp, avdpsc, yvvrj, yvvaiKee, iraTrjp, 
firjTnp, vioc, naig, tivyaTvp, adsTi^oc, Ttpayfia, npayfjLaTa, XPW a i 
Xprjfiara, ipyov, epya, xpovog, rjfJiEpa, #c5pa, yrj, 666c, oUia, ohoc, 
pioipa, yvufin, x tL Pi an( l X°P^Vi a string in music. 

Remark 2. Participles are used in this same way, and the 
participle frequently has so complete a substantival power that 
the substantive which follows it is no longer in the case which 
the verb governs, but in the genitive, and even takes the pos- 
sessive pronoun as an attributive. Thus, ol exovtec, 11 the rich:" 
ol XiyovTsg, " the speakers :" ol tyvXaaaovTEQ tljv noTiEfiiuv, " the 
guards of the enemy :" 6 r y ekelvov tek6v, " and his father." 
{Eur., EL, 337.) 

Remark 3. The adjective is also employed in the neuter gen- 
der with the article, but without a substantive, to express ab- 
stract notions ; as, to naXov, " the beautiful :" to ayadou or ray- 
aOov, " the good ;" often occurring in Plato : to tovtov, " the 
same :" to evtvxec, " luck To avatodnTov, " want of feeling :" 
ro kolvov, "the commonwealth" — Thucydides abounds in parti- 
ciples thus employed ; as, to dsdioc, "fear :" to -frapeovv, u con- 
fidence :" to Tifi6fj,evov rfjc tcoIeuc (ii., 63), " the honor paid to the 
state :" ev tcj firj jieTietcovtl (i., 142), " in their not practicing :" 
to etziov (v., 7), " an attack," &c. This answers to the English 
idiom, " his being afraid," &c. (Arnold, Thucyd., i., 36.) 

Remark 4. It must be borne in mind, however, that while the 
singular neuter expresses an abstract notion, the plural denotes 
the different elements or particulars w T hich compose such no- 
tion ; as, to kclkov, " evil;" but ra nana, " the evils." 

Remark 5. The neuter adjective is also employed to denote 



418 



THE ARTICLE. 



collective names of persons ; thus, to kvavrlov t " the enemy f 1 
to vtt^koov, "the subjects:" to Tivgtlkov, "the pirates." Espe- 
cially adjectives in -ikov ; as, to ttoXltlkov, " the citizens :" to 
6ttXltik6v, w the heavy-armed troops :" To 'EXXnviKov, " the 
Greeks:" to ftapBapinov, "the barbarians." — Adjectives of this 
ending are also used in the plural to express a series or circle 
of events ; as, ra TpcoiKa, " the Trojan war :" ra 'E/Mjyv ma, " the 
Grecian history :" ra vavrtKa, " naval affairs" 



IV. THE ARTICLE. 
(A.) Homeric Usage. 
Rule XXVIII. The article was originally a demonstra- 
tive pronoun, and such is generally its meaning in the 
Homeric poems ; as, 

f O yap PaaiXfji xo'kwBur (22., i., 9), for this (deity) being 

incensed at the king. 
f O yap fjXSe $oag ent vrjag (Ib>, 12), for this (priest) came 

to the swift ships. 
Ta r 9 anoiva dexe&Bt (74., 20), and receive this ransom. 

Remark I. Consult remarks on the Article, page 44. — In the 
post-Homeric witers also, 6, fj, rd, has frequently a demonstra- 
tive force. In Herodotus, the Doric writers, and Attic poets, it 
is not unfrequently used as in Homer. And even in Attic prose 
it retained its demonstrative force in the following cases: 1. 
To, "therefore" (as 1L, xvii., 404): rd ye, Plato: to 6i, at the 
beginning of a sentence, " whereas " very frequently in Plato : 
6 /lev, and 6 de, ol Se, al tie, at the beginning of a sentence very 
frequently. — 2. With prepositions ; as, en tov, u hence ;" dta to, 
"wherefore" (Thucyd.) : ev role, "among these" (Id.). — 3. In the 
adverbial formulas npo tov (rrpoTov), "before this," " before"— 
4. In the formulas tov koI tov, " the one or the other ;" to kol to, 
" this or that" &c. — 5. Immediately before a relative sentence, 
introduced by 6g, baoc, or oloc, an idiom peculiarly Platonic. — 6. 
In the construction oi ftev, ol 6e, to which we shall presently 
recur. 

Remark 2. In the case of objects well known or mentioned 
before, 6, rd, is used with a demonstrative force in all the 
post-Homeric writers ; thus, to tov QefiioToicteovc ev exet, de t$ 



THE ARTICLE. 



419 



'ZzpKpto, &c. (Seriphio isti), Plat., Rep., p. 329, E. — h^rei fie tqv 
avdpuTzov (sc. Milyam, istum hominem), Demosth., p. 850, 19. 

Rule XXIX. The form 5, fj, to, accentuated through all 
the cases, is very frequently employed, in Homer, for the 
relative pronoun, be, r\, 6 : as, 

Td [iev iroXt(j)v e^enpadofiev (//., i., 125), what things we 
obtained, by sacking, from cities. 

Remark 1. Compare the use of the English that for which. 

Remark 2. This use of the article as a relative passed into 
the Ionic and Doric writers ; as, ra /zev 'OTavqc sine, " what 
things Otanes said" (Herod., iii., 81): k&vtuv tuv heyo), " of all 
the things that 1 say" (Id.). 



(B.) Attic Usage. 
Rule XXX. The article, in Attic Greek, is added to a 
substantive when the speaker wishes to denote an object 
as definite, and to distinguish it from another of the same 
kind ; as, 

f O avOpojnog, the man. 
f H yvvrj, the woman. 

To npayfia, the deed. 

Remark 1. The substantive without the article expresses 
the general notion without any limitation of individuality ; but, 
with the article, a part of the general notion, an individual mem- 
ber or members of the class, contemplated as such by the 
speaker ; as, 6 avOpunog, " the man whom I am thinking of." 

Remark 2. Hence the article is also used to denote the whole 
compass of the idea, inasmuch as the speaker submits an ob- 
ject to his consideration, as the representative of all others of 
the same kind ; as, 6 avdponoc -Q-vtitoc hanv, " man (i. e., all 
men, or the creature man) is mortal :" rj avdpta naTiy eariv, i. e., 
all that I comprehend under the idea avSpia. 

Remark 3. The English indefinite article has a double mean- 
ing : thus, it denotes either a class generally ; as, " a man," in 
which case the Greeks use the substantive alone ; as, dvdpuiroc : 
or it denotes an individual, but not spoken of in a definite man- 
ner, a man — any man, where, in Greek, the indefinite rig is often 
used; as, yvvrj rig elxev bpviv, "a certain woman had a hen." 



420 



THE ARTICLE. 



But sometimes the indefinite article is added ; as, Tovg avroiv- 
rag Tivag. In this case, Tig is generally put after its substan- 
tive. 



Rule XXXI. Abstract nouns, when considered as such, 
do not take the article, as an abstract noun is not capable 
of individuality ; but the article is sometimes used either to 
define or particularize the abstract ; as, 
QiXooocpia, philosophy (generally). 
f H (f>iXooo(j)la, the philosophy (i. e., a particular branch). 
To dyadov, the good (i. e., good as conceived of by the 
speaker). 

Remark I. Sometimes the article gives a collective force, so 
that the notion is taken in its widest extent ; as, aai 7) cocfrpo- 

CVV7] KCtX 7] diKCLLOGVVTj KOI 7] avSpela, KCll Q.VT7] t) (f>p6v7jcng fir) nadap- 
(wg Tig y. {Plat., Phced., p. 69, C.) 

Remark 2. The names of arts and sciences, virtues and vices, 
are generally without the article, as being familiar from every- 
day use. So, also, irlfjdog, fzeyedog, vipog, evpog, have not the 
article, when used adverbially, as definitions of time and space. 



Rule XXXII. When the infinitive is used as an abstract 
substantive, since it expresses the whole extent of the no- 
tion, it is generally introduced by the article ; as, 
To vnep rrjg rrarpidog dnodavstv, " the dying for one's 
country" 

Remark 1. The infinitive with the article is treated in lan- 
guage exactly like a substantive, since, by means of the article, 
it may be declined through every case, and is capable of ex- 
pressing all those relations which the cases of the substantive 
denote. On the other hand, its verbal nature appears, in this 
use of it, just as it does in that without the article ; as, to kma- 
toItjv ypdtyeiv, " the writing a letter " In this way, by prefixing 
the article, whole sentences may be expressed in the form of 
one extended substantive idea. 

Remark 2. When a subject and predicate are joined to the 
infinitive, whether it appears as a subject or object, both the 
former and latter are put in the accusative, as in the case of 
the infinitive without an article. If, however, the subject of 



THE ARTICLE. 



421 



the infinitive is not different from the principal subject of the 
sentence, it is not expressed, and the predicate appears in the 
same case as the principal subject of the sentence, that is, in 
the nominative, by means of attraction. In English, we must 
generally translate the infinitive with the article by a subordi- 
nate sentence with the Conjunction, "that" "because" "in or- 
der to" &c. — Thus, to ciTTodavelv tiva VTrep rrje rcatpidoc KaXy rig 
rvxv : to dfiapTavetv dvOpurzovg ovrag ovdev, oluaL r d-avfiacTov : 
'O Kvpog did to <pi?,ofj.a07}c elvai noWd Tovc irapovrac avvpcora, Kal 
baa airoc vif d?^utv (avvpuTaro) did to dyxivovc elvai raxv dizeK- 
ptvaTo. 

Rule XXXIII. Proper names, when first mentioned m 
a sentence, generally omit the article. They take it, how- 
ever, if they have previously been mentioned ; or, even 
though not mentioned before, if they are to be denoted as 
long known ; as, 

Scofcpdrrjc ecprj, Socrates said. 



Aeyerai 6 Bopsag rr\v i Boreas is said to have car- ? 
'Qpeidviav apndoac, S ried off Orithyia. S 

Remark 1. But, in connection with an adjective, proper 
names generally have the article with them, because they then 
denote an individual of a class ; as, 6 aotybc luKpurnc, " the wise 
Socrates ;" i. e., Socrates, who is of the number of the wise. 

Remark 2. When the proper name is followed by a substan- 
tive in apposition with the article, it has not itself the article ; 
as, Kpolaog 6 tCjv Avd&v fiaGilevc, " Crcesus, the king of the Lydi- 
ans" If the article is added to it, it signifies that the person 
has been already named. — When, however, the word or sen- 
tence in apposition has not the article, the personal noun ha3 
it not; as, QovKvdidnc 'AdnvaToc, " Thucydides, an Athenian ;" but 
this idiom is not so common as QovkvSISjjc 6 'Kdrtvaioc, and is 
only used when the attributive is unimportant ; when, how- 
ever, the apposition is emphatic, and is used really to distin- 
guish different persons of the same name, the article is always 
added. — The same distinction exists with the personal pronoun 
when used as a personal name ; as, kyu 6 t^/licjVj * I, the un- 
lucky :" eyo) rdlac, " I, an unhappy man." 



? SuicpdTTjg 20?/, 



the Socrates I 
said. 



just spoke of 



Nn 



422 



THE ARTICLE. 



Remark 3. Names of rivers are generally joined to the word 
TzoTdfio^ as adjectives, and stand between it and the article ; as, 
6 "kTivg Tvora/jLog, " the River Halys" {Herod., i., 72.) So, also, 
hills and countries, sometimes islands, when they are of the 
same gender with the word in apposition, namely, opog, anpov, 
yrj, vfjcog, &c. ; as, to Lovviov aKpov, " the Promontory Sunium:" 
ij ArjTiog vfjGog, " the Island Delos," &c. 

Rule XXXIV. When adjectives or participles appear as 
substantives, they generally take the article if the whole 
of the notion is signified, and the whole is regarded as an 
individual ; as, 



Oi Xeyovreg, the speakers. 

Remark. But when a part only of the whole notion is signi- 
fied, the article is omitted ; as, /ca/ca nal alaxpa enpagev, " he did 
evil and disgraceful things. 11 

Rule XXXV. The article is also used with participles, 
when an individual or individuals are so conceived of by 
the speaker as to be particularized and specially meant ; 
and in this case, the article and participle are to be trans- 
lated into English by the relative and indicative ; as, 
Oi ttjv (TKf]vrjv diapndcavTeg, "they who plundered the 



r O rjyrjodfjLevog ovdetg saratj " there will be no one who will 
lead the vjayP 

Remark I. The difference between this and the preceding 
rule is, in general, so slight that they .might almost be consoli- 
dated into one. Thus, oi e^ovrf?, literally, " they who have ;" 
oi Xeyovreg, " they who speak. 11 

Remark 2. There are, however, passages both in prose and 
poetry where the article is wanting ; in these cases, the person 
or thing is spoken of only generally, neither regarded as any 
definite part of a class, nor standing for the collective unity of 
the whole class ; as, anavra yap Tokfidai decva Qalverai {Eurip., 
Phozn., 270): dia^pec 6e 7rafL7roAv paduv (irj jiadovrog {Plat., Leg., 
p. 795, B.). 



Oi ay ado i, 
Oi exovreg, 




tent. 



THE ARTICLE. 



423 



Rule XXXVI. Every expression which does not mere- 
ly indicate an object generally, but represents it as existing 
in a particular state or in a peculiar relation, is accom- 
panied in Greek by the definite article ; as, 

r One ought to respect an old j 
Tdv yepovra aldeloOat xprj,< man, i. e., the man that > 

( is old. ) 

( Even a slave ought to par~~) 
Tcov rov /3lov dyadcov j^er- ! ticipate in the good things ! 
exscv del ttai rdv dovXov, j of life, i, e., even the one 

[_ that is a slave. 

Rule XXXVII. The article is used in prose with the 
demonstrative pronouns ovtoc;, ode, enelvoc, and with the 
reflexive pronoun avrog, in which case the pronoun either 
precedes the article or follows the substantive ; as, 
ovrog 6 dvrjp, or 6 dvrjp ovtoc. (not 6 ovrog dvrjp), this very 
man. 

rjde rj yv&fiT], or rj yv&\ir\ fjde, this very opinion, 
avrog 6 j3aatXevg, or 6 (3aotXevg avrog, the king himself 
But f O avroc;, the same. 

f O avrog (3aatXevg, the same king. 

Remark. The article is also joined to a substantive connect- 
ed with an adjective pronoun, if the object is to be represented 
as a definite one ; and the objective pronoun takes its place be- 
tween the article and the substantive ; as, 6 epoc Trarr/p, " my 
father but kfibg adeTujios, " a brother of mine" (undetermined 
which). 

Rule XXXVIII. The article is joined to a substantive 
connected with rotovrog, rotoode, tooovtoc, if the quantity 
or quality denoted by them is to be represented as attach- 
ing either to a definite object or to the whole class of objects 
previously mentioned ; and the article generally stands be- 
fore the pronoun and the substantive. On the contrary, the 
article must be omitted if the object is indefinite, that is, 
any one of those which are of such a kind, or so great ; as, 



424 



THE ARTICLE. 



*0 roLOvrog dvrjp davfJiaOTog ecttiv, such a man as this is to 
be admired. 

Td roiavra irpdyfiara KaXa ioriv, such deeds as these are 
noble. 

Tolovtov avdpa ovte dv enaLvotrjg, thou wouldst not praise 
such a man. 



Rule XXXIX. "AXXog without the article is equivalent 
to the Latin alius, " another ;" but with the article it means 
" the rest ;" as, 

"AXXog av6p(*)Ttog, another man. 

"AXXrj yrj, another land. 

Ol aXXoi, the rest. 

f H aXXrj f EAAdc, the rest of Greece. 

Remark 1. "Erepog without the article has the same mean- 
ing as aXkog, but with a stronger expression of difference : on 
the other hand, 6 Hepog is only used with reference to two, and 
is equivalent to the Latin alter, "the other." In the plural, ol 
erepot means "the other party" i. e., the other of two parties. 

Remark 2. HoXaol means " many" but ol ttoaaoc, " the most, 11 
"the many" the plebs : nAEiovg, "more," but ol irAeiovg, "the 
most." — So, as already remarked, avrog, "he himself" but 6 
avTog, " the same" " his very self." 



Rule XL. The article stands with cardinal numbers 
when the number is to be decidedly marked ; as, 
Td eticooiv eT7j, the twenty years. 

Tolg rpiol datcrvXoig, with the three fingers. 

Remark 1. Sometimes the article gives the notion of the 
whole ; as, 7)v 6e, ore eTe?ievra, afupi ra TrevTrjKovra err}, " now he 
was, when he died, about fifty years in all." 

Remark 2. The ordinal numbers are regularly joined with the 
article* ; as, 6 Trpuroc arparnybq, "the first leader." 



Rule XLT. The article is joined to adverbs of place and 
time, more rarely of quality and manner, and converts them 
either into adjectives or substantives ; as, 



THE ARTICLE. 



425 



f H avu) noXtc, the upper city. 

'0 vvv f3aoiXevg, the present king. 

01 rrdvv tojv orpariGyrajv, the best of the soldiers. 

Td kclto), the parts above. 

'0 del, the perpetual. 

Remark. The article is very rarely omitted with these con- 
structions. In Homer, this omission is naturally more common 
than elsewhere. 

Rule XLII. The article may be prefixed to any word or 
sentence which does not express the notion of the word, 
but only the grammatical form ; as, 
To tvtttg), the word tvtttg). 

r Tudg, G) avdpeg 'Adrjvaloi ; \ You, Athenians ; and 
to <P vfielg brav emc*), \ when I say this word 
rrjv ttoXlv Aeyco, ) " you," / mean the state. 

Remark. So sentences assume a suhstantive force, and can 
perform all the functions of a substantive ; as, ev ert hetirerac, 
to fjv TTEiaufiev vfiag 6q XPV vf>u<; acpelvac. (Plat., Rep., p. 327, C.) 

Rule XLII I. When the article is separated from its sub- 
stantive, all the words between are generally to be taken 
as an adjectival sentence, standing as the attribute to the 
substantive ; so that, when several articles refer to differ- 
ent members of the attributive sentence, they frequently 
stand together at the beginning of it, and in an inverted 
order ; as, 

Td rrjg tg)v ttoXX&v ipvxrjg o\i\iara, the eyes of the soul of 
most. 

Remark 1. The article is sometimes repeated after the noun, 
for the sake of emphasis and perspicuity ; as, rbv Tracda rbv gov, 
" thy son 6 x^lapxog ° T ®C ayyeltag eloko[il£g)V, " the chiliarch 
who was to bring in the report." 

Remark 2. When an adjective without the article stands in 
connection with a substantive which has the article, but not be- 
tween the two, the object is distinguished, not from others, but 
from itself in other circumstances ; as, ydero em TrTiovoioig rode 
Nn2 



426 



PRONOUNS, 



7ro?ilTaig, " he rejoiced on account of the citizens, because they were 
wealthy:" kir' aKpoic rolg opsutv, "on the mountains where they 
are highest" 

Rule XLIV. The article is also combined with \lzv and 
de, and then has, in some degree, the force of a pronoun ; 
as, 

oi [isv e(pvyov, oi de efiei- ) Some, indeed, fled, but others ) 
vav, S remained. S 

rovg fiev eirqvet, rovg d' ) The former he praised, but ) 
k&oXa&v, S the latter he punished. > 

Remark. This employment of the article with [lev and Si is a 
remnant of its Homeric and demonstrative usage ; thus, oi uev, 
literally, " these, indeed;" and oi de, literally, "but those." 



V. PRONOUNS. 
Rule XLV. The relative agrees with its antecedent in 
gender and number ; as, 
r O avr\p ov eldeg, the man whom you saw. 
f H dpert] rjg smdvfislg, virtue, of which you are desirous. 
Oi CTpantirai ovg e^opey, the soldiers whom we have. 
Td nana a, ne-novdafiev, the evils which we have suffered. 

Remark t. The relative must, in reality, be regarded as placed 
between two cases of the same noun, with the former of which 
it agrees in gender and number, and with the latter in gender, 
number, and case ; thus, 6 dvyp ov elder is the same as 6 dvrip, 
ov avdpa elSec, " the man, which man you saw ;" and again, i] 
aperr) fjc E7ridv[ielc is the same as rj apery, rjc aperrjg eTudv/iece, &c. 

Remark 2. The relative sometimes agrees, by synesis, not 
with the grammatical gender of the noun, but with the person 
implied in it ; as, Atoc tekoc, tjte /lcol alel Tzapiaraaai, " offspring 
of Jove, who art ever present unto me" (11. , x., 278), where Minerva 
is implied in tekoc. — So, tyiTiov &a?ioc, ov tekov avrrj (11., xxii., 
87), where Hector is implied in &akog. 

Rule XL VI. When the relative refers to two or more 
objects, it is put in the plural. If the substantives are all of 
the same gender, it is of the same gender with them ; but 



PRONOUNS. 



427 



if they are of different genders, it agrees with the more 
worthy ; and if they express things without life, it is gener- 
ally put in the neuter ; as, 

'O rraT7jp nal oi adeX<j)oi ovg ) The father and brothers > 

S whom I have. > 

f H <pG)vrj nai 6 rponog ev olg ) The language and way in ) 
eredpdfjfjLTjv, 3 which I had been reared. S 

TLoXefiog teal elprjvr] a fie- \ War and peace , which exer- \ 
ycoTTjv exei Svvayav ev > cise a very great influence > 
rolg avdpurroig, ' among men. > 



Rule XL VII. The noun to which the relative refers is 
often omitted in the antecedent clause, and joined to the 
relative in the same clause with it ; as, 
Ovrog eoriv, ov eldeg civ. ) This is the man whom you ) 

dpconov, S saw. S 

» ./ r c You have not any friend on } 

Ov K exetg, cjtlvc marevoat \ J J I 

av dvvalo 00* ) whom 2/ ow mi S ht be able \ 

\ to rely. ) 

Remark I. In other words, the previous noun is omitted, and 
the latter one is expressed. This is done in order to bring the 
relative or adjectival clause more prominently forward, and to 
give it a substantival character. 

Remark 2. In these constructions the relative clause is often 
placed first, by which arrangement additional force and em- 
phasis are obtained. Thus, besides saying ovrog eoriv ov eldeg 
dvdpunov, we may also express it with greater force as fol- 
lows : ov eldeg avOponov ovrog egtlv. 



Rule XL VIII. The relative frequently agrees with its 
antecedent in case also, by what is called attraction ; as, 

With the treasures which ) 



Zvv rolg drjoavpolg olg 6* 
7Tari]p KareXinev, 



his father left behind (for 
ovg 6 narrjp KareXirrev). 



, v _ n , r C Leading; an army from the 
Ayo)v ano tcjv iroAecov, o)v\ . . ° , f J . . 

< cities which he had per- 



eiTELoe, Grparlav, 



suaded (for ag erceioe). 



428 



PRONOUNS. 



Remark !. The object of attraction is to connect the relative 
immediately with its substantive as an attribute. 

Remark 2. This attraction, however, generally speaking, is 
confined to those cases where the relative should stand in the 
accusative, but is attracted by the genitive or dative of the sub- 
stantive. The unity of the substantival and adjectival sentence 
is very frequently yet more perfect, by the substantive being 
transferred from the principal to the relative clause ; as, kiri- 
6v{i& rjg eypaipag ETriGToTijjg, for Trjg kmGToTif/g rjv Zypatyag : and 
again, x^P^ V typmfac kmGToTiy, for ry etugtoTit} rjv eypaipag. 

Rule XLIX. If, in this attraction, the word to which the 
relative refers as its antecedent be a demonstrative pro- 
noun, this pronoun is generally omitted, and the relative 
takes its case ; as, 

liijv olg fidXtara cpiXelg, with those whom you love most, 
For Hvv rovroig ovg fidXiora <j>i\elg. 

Remark. This is the simplest form of attraction which takes 
place, namely, with a substantive depending on a preposition, 
and in the same case as is required by the verb of the rela- 
tive. When, however, the relative takes another preposition, 
or the same used in another relation, the attraction is not ad- 
missible. 

Rule L. The relative adjectives olog, oGog, dorigovv, 
rjXircog, also suffer attraction, not only in the accusative, but 
also in the nominative, when the verb elfit with an express 
subject stands in the relative sentence ; as, 
Xapi^ofjiai oca) ool avdpl, for xapi^oiiai avdpl toiovtm olog 
gv el. 

Remark. This attraction consists in the omission of the de- 
monstrative adjective in the genitive, dative, or accusative ; 
as, tolovtov avdpog, tolovtu avdpi, tolovtov avdpa, or rov tolov- 
tov, t<J3 tolovtw, tov tolovtov, and then putting the relative ad- 
jective, by attraction, in the case of the preceding substantive, 
or of the demonstrative which is omitted ; as, avdpog olov, avdpl 
olo), avdpa olov, or olov, oZgj, olov : the verb of the relative sen- 
tence (eifit) is then also omitted, and the subject of the relative 
sentence agrees with the attracted relative. This attracted 
adjectival sentence assumes the character of an inflected ad- 



PRONOUNS. 



429 



jective, and still greater connection and unity between the two 
sentences, thus mixed together, is produced, by placing the sub- 
stantive to which the adjective refers in the adjectival sentence ; 
as, 



Gen. 
Dat. 
Acc. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Acc. 



epafiat olov gov avdpag. 
Xaptfrfjcat olg) ool dvSpt. 
enaLvC) olov ce avdpa. 
epafiai olov v/lluv avdpuv. 
Xapl£o/j.ac oloig vfilv avdp&oi. 
enaivcj o'lovq vfidg avdpag. 



Rule LI. Sometimes the relative does not stand in the 
case of its substantive in the principal clause, but this sub- 
stantive in the case of the relative ; this is called inverse 
attraction ; as, 

Ovaiav rjv fcareXcne tgj vlel, ov TrXstovog a$-ia eotiv, 
For Ovata, r\v KareXiixe raj viel, &c. 

Remark. This inverse attraction is very common in ovdelf 
bang ov, the verb karl being omitted. Hence the formula ovdelg 
boric; ov as a pronominal substantive (for ndvreg, nemo no?i), 
which is inflected through all the cases ; as, 

Nom. ovdelg banc. ovk (av ravra iroLfjceiev). 

Gen. oidevbc brov ov {KaTeyeXacev). 

Dat. ovdevl bru ovk {aTZEKpivaro). 

Acc. ovdiva bvnva ov (KaTEicXavoe). 

But sometimes this formula suffers the common attraction, 
the relative following the case of ovdsig; as, in Xen., Cyrop., i., 
4, 25, ovdiva tyaoav ovtiv' ov dcucpvovr' dnoaTpe^eadai, for ovdiva 
etyaoav ysveadcu bang ov daKpvuv aizoorpEtyoiTo. 



Rule LIL The possessive pronouns are only employed 
when an emphasis is required ; in all other cases the per- 
sonal pronouns are used in their stead ; as, 

Uarrjp rjfMjjv, " our father" (literally, a the father of us"). 

Uarfjp rjfjLerepof;, " our own father." 

Remark. A substantive is sometimes put in the genitive, as 
in apposition with another genitive implied in a possessive pro- 
noun ; as, eKKo-ipete Kopa% rov ye gov oQdaX/ndv rod rrpEaSsog, 
"may a raven strike out the eye of you, the ambassador." So, in 



430 



PRONOUNS. 



Latin, mea ipsius causa, where ipsius is in apposition with the 
genitive implied in mea. So, also, " nomen meum absentis, mece 
prcesentis preces." (Cic, Plane, x., 26.) 

Rule LIII. The possessive pronoun is sometimes used 
objectively ; as, 

Hog rroOog, regret for thee. 

Td[ia vovQerrjfMiTa, the advice which thou givest me. 

Remark 1. So, rrjv efirjv aldu, 11 fear of me" (JEsch., Pers., 
696) : ay npofindla, "from anxiety on thy account" {Soph., (Ed. 
Col., 332) : 7} k[irj vnovpyta, "the service rendered unto me" ((Ed. 
Col., 1413). — This usage, however, is comparatively rare. 

Remark 2. The possessive pronoun in the neuter with the 
article is sometimes put for the personal pronoun ; as, to vpe- 
repov, for vfietg {Herod., viii., 140) : to efiov, for ey6 (Plat., Rep., 
vii., p. 533, A.), &c. 

Rule LIV. The pronoun avrog is often used after ordinal 
numbers, to show that one person, with several others, whose 
number is less by one than the number mentioned, has done 
something ; as, 

Kopivditev arparriyog rjv J Xenoclides was leader of the \ 
EevofcXeLdrjg, uefinrog > Corinthians, along with > 
avrog, J four others. j 

Remark. In this construction avrog generally marks the lead- 
ing personage. — For other uses of avrog, consult Remarks on 
page 207. 

Rule LV. The demonstrative pronouns are often used 
instead of the adverbs " Aere" and " there as, 
'AAA' r]6 y oixadtiv etc ddfiov )But here comes a maid-ser- ) 

Epxerai, ) vant out of the mansion. S 

Avrai yap, avrai, rrXrjatov ) For there, there they are > 

fipcjotcovoL (jlov, S leaping near me. 5 

Rule LVI. The reflexive pronoun eavrov is sometimes 
used for the other reflexive pronouns of the first and second 
person ; as, 



GENITIVE. 



431 



Aet r\iidq dvepeodat eav- ) It behooves us to ask our ) 
rovg, ) own selves. S 

El 6' £T7]TVLIG)C UOOOV TOV } n , 7 ) 

f ~ r * ; t« , ( But if you truly know your ( 

avrrjg oioda {JEsch., } J % * ? 

n , rtrt „ v v \ own fate. \ 

jjgam., 1308), J ) 

Remark 1. Some accompanying gesture must be supposed, 
that may serve to express the reference of the pronoun. 

Remark 2. The usage here referred to occurs commonly only 
in the plural ; the instances in the singular, one of which we 
have given under the rule, are mostly uncertain readings. 



VI. GENITIVE. 
The genitive is the case denoting whence, and hence ex- 
presses, 

(A.) In a local sense, the outgoing or removal and 
separation of an object, since it indicates the object or 
point from which the action of the verb proceeds ; as, 
eticeiv odov, " to retire from the way?"* 

(B.) In a causal sense, the cause, origin, or author, 
especially the object which calls forth, engenders 
(gignit), excites, or occasions the action of the verb ; 
as, £7udv[i(x) rrjg dperrjg, I am desirous of virtue. 

1. Local Sense. — Separative Genitive. 
Rule LVII. All verbs that express any notion of removal, 
separation, departure, rising from, &c, take a genitive of 
the point whence this removal, separation, or departure be- 
gan ; as, 

YulttEiv odov, to retire from the way. 

'Att£x£1> tgjv dpyvpetoyv ) It is distant many stadia ) 
TtoXXa oradia, S from the silver-mines. S 

'Anedn rrjg noXeog, he departed from the city. 

Rule LVIII. All verbs of leaving off, ceasing, &c, which 
imply the notion of removal or departure from, take a geni- 
tive of that whence the motion, real or supposed, began ; as, 



432 



GENITIVE. 



'AireXim tt/c vdpecdg, he left off his insolence. 
'J&Travoaro rtjg dpyi]g, he ceased from his anger. 

Remark. Hence all transitive verbs, of driving away from, 
keeping off, delivering from, deviating from, may take a genitive 
of that whence the motion began, though it need not be ex- 
pressed to make up the objective construction, as these verbs 
take an accusative of that which is the immediate patient of 
the transitive action. 

Rule LIX. Verbs of beginning take a genitive case, the 
genitive denoting the object or point whence the action of 
the verb proceeds ; as, 

"Jlpt-avro adifccjv epyoyv, they began unjust deeds. 

"HpXero rov $eov, he began from the god. 

Remark. The prepositions dno and etc are sometimes added 
to define the genitive more accurately ; as, oKontifjiev, aptjdpevot 
and rfjg Tpotyfjg, ucnep and t&v GToixelov. (Xen., Mem., ii., 1, 
1.) So, in Latin, incipere ah aliqua re : — rjpZe ek iiovcLKfjg. (Plat., 
Leg., 701, A.) 

2. Causal Sense. 
The genitive in a causal sense likewise denotes an out- 
going, yet not, as in the local sense, a mere outward one, 
but an inward and active one, since it expresses the object 
by whose inward power the action of the subject is called 
forth and engendered (gignitur). 

(A.) The Genitive as an expression of Activity generally. 

Rule LX. The genitive of activity appears as the geni- 
tive of the origin or the author, and is found with verbs of 
becoming, arising, having become or arisen, producing, and 
creating, such as ytyveadat, (f)V£LV, <f>vvai, elvat ; as, 
'Ea0/U3v yeveodat, to spring from the noble. 
Aifiarog elg dyaSov, thou art of noble blood. 
Tov 6e ecj>vv eycj, and from this one I sprang. 



Rule LXI. The genitive of activity appears as the ob- 
ject which has acquired another, made it its own, and 



GENITIVE. 433 

possesses it ; and is found with the verbs elvat and yty- 
veodai, denoting possession, property, part or duty, and with 
the adjectives cdtog, oifcetog, iepog. Kvpiog : as, 

T^g (f)vaeo)g (xeyiarov ndXXog eoriv, the beauty of nature is 
very great. 

Tov HuKpdrovg ttoXat} r\v dperr), there was much virtue in 
Socrates. 

To nedlov fjv tCjv Xopacffilcov, the plain belonged to the 
Chorasmians. 

'Avolag earl noielv ravra, it is the part of folly to do these 
things. 

Td airov tdia, his own property. 

Trig X ( ^P a ^ Kvpiog syevero, he became master of the country. 



Rule LXII. The genitive of activity appears as the ob- 
ject which includes and holds together one or more other 
objects as parts belonging to it ; hence all words having 
reference to part take the genitive case ; as, 

'OnTfjvat fcpetiv, to roast some flesh. 

v YaTE\iov rrjg yrjg, they laid waste a part of the land. 

Uapott-ag rrjg ftvpag, having opened the door a little. 
r Kv Tojv GTparevoiievov, he was one of those who served. 
Tov tidvarov rjyovvrat 

rojv {leyiorov naiccdv 

elvat, 

Rule LXIII. Hence the superlative degree is followed 
by a genitive, this genitive marking the entire class, of 
which the superlative indicates the most prominent as a 
part or parts ; as, 

"ExOiGTog 7rdvT(ov, most hated of all. 

Ol dpiGTOi tg)v t 'EXXr}VG)v, the bravest of the Greeks. 



They think death to be one 
the greatest evils. 



Rule LX1V. Verbs of sharing, touching, seizing, being 
Oo 



434 



GENITIVE. 



connected, and the like, also take the genitive, as they refer 
more or less to the idea of part ; as, 

0/ nanol tovtcjv iierexovoiv, The bad share in these things. 

"Anreadai rrjg %upog, To touch the hand. 

&1\lv7) exerai rife; x&pag, A lake borders on the country. 

Remark. Under this same rule fall verbs signifying to obtain, 
reach, or strive to obtain ; as, rvyxdveiv xPVpurov, " to obtain 
riches ;" bpeyeade Tijg aperijg, "strive after virtue." 

Rule LXV. The place in which, and the time when, an 
action takes place, appear as the genitive of activity. The 
deed or event belonging, as it were, to the place and time, 
proceeds in a certain measure from them, and is depend- 
ent upon them ; as, 

Ne0oc ovk £(f>aiv£TO Tcdarjg ) A cloud appeared not over ) 

yrjg, S the whole earth, > 

TTV , ~ P , { He sat down on the opposite ) 

l^ev roixov rov erepov, < .. 7 , 1 

r side of the wall. 3 

v k.v6r\ ftaXXu rov edpog, Flowers bloom in the spring. 

BaoiXevg ov iiax&rai dsna, ) The king will not fight in ) 

rjfispcov, S ten days. S 

Remark L The genitive of place is rare in prose. The place 
and time, in this construction, seem to be conceived by the 
speaker as a necessary condition to the notion of the verb, whence 
it in some sort arose. 

Remark 2. Hence the local adverbs in the genitive form, ov, 
ttov, nov, onov, avrov, vtpov, Tnlov, ayxov, &c, and the local ad- 
verbs with the suffix tiev, apparently for the local adverbs with 
the suffix tit. 

Lastly. The genitive of activity also appears as the mat- 
ter of which an object is formed, made, and, as it were, pro- 
duced. Hence arise the four following rules, all turning 
more or less on this same principle. 

Rule LXVI. The genitive of activity is joined also to 
verbs of making or forming from any thing ; with expres- 
sions of abundance or want of any thing ; and with verbs of 



GENITIVE. 



435 



eating, drinking, enjoying, having benefit or advantage* since 
it indicates that from which the abundance or want is made 
out, or from which the operations of eating, drinking, &c, 
arise ; as, 

XdXicov TTenoiTjfieva earl rd ) The statues are made of / 
dydXuara, j bronze. 3 

EoTpofievn eOilv odbq Xt- ) Xhe road is paved with stone. I 
6ov, ) ) 

"EftTTto/m $-vXov, Kal rpd- t A cup of wood, and table of 

ire^a dpyvpiov, S silver. 

To (3t6Xiov yifiet ootytiv ) The book is full of wise ) 
Xoycov, S sayings. S 

Kw/zat fiearat oirov teal > Villages full of corn and > 
olvov, S wine. S 

liravi^eLv xpTjfidrcjv, To be scantily off in means. 

'EoOUlv tcpetiv, Kal ttIvelv ^ To eat flesh, and drink i 
olvov, S wine. S 

Veveodai ti\lt)<;, To taste of honor. 

i To smell of violets, to \ 
v 0^etv lg)v, fivpov tcveIv, < breathe forth the perfume S 

\ of myrrh. / 
Remark. The accusative stands with verbs of eating and 
drinking when, 1. The substance is consumed as a whole or in 
a large mass ; or, 2. Is to be pointed out as the customary food 
which any one takes ; as, tcivcj tov olvov, iro?^vv olvov. 



Rule LXVII. Verbs of sensation and perception also, 
such as to hear, to listen to, to smell, to perceive, to under' 
stand, and also verbs of remembering and forgetting, take 
the genitive of activity, since it indicates that on which the 
operations of sensation and perception are based, and from 
which they, as it were, arise and are produced ; as, 
Ov <po)vovvTog dfcovd), I hear one who does not speak. 

'Qg tiacppovTO tcjv KafjirjXcjv > When the horses smelted the ) 

oi ltttcoi, > camels. * 

Ovk dfcpoufievoi rov adovroq, Not listening to the singer. 



436 



GENITIVE. 



Alo6dveo6ai /cpavyrjg, 

Kb)(j)OV OVVl7]\Ll, 



To perceive a loud cry. 
I understand a dumb man. 



Remark 1. Verbs of sight are excepted from this rule, and 
govern the accusative. Verbs of hearing, also, sometimes take 
an accusative, as well of the person as of the thing ; as, ectrj 
dovnov atcovcae (11., X., 354). So, verbs of perceiving; as, uc 
yadero ra yi-yvofieva (Xen., Cyrop., iii., 1, 4). 

Remark 2. Verbs of hearing take the genitive in the sense of 
"to obey," as well as other verbs of obeying, which are else- 
where joined with the dative, the person who is heard being 
considered as the source whence the obligation is derived ; as, 
clkovelv, VTcanoveiv, Karaicoveiv, &c. 

Rule LXVIII. Words that signify being acquainted with 
and ignorant of. being skilled and unskilled in, being expe- 
rienced in any thing, and ability and dexterity in general, 
take the genitive of that in which the person is skilled or 
experienced, &c, as being that, from energizing wherein 
the skill or experience proceeds ; as, 
"Efineipog elfil rrjg Te%vng, I am skilled in the art. 
'AnaidevTog rrjg dperrjg, Uninstructed in virtue. 
HapaoiisvaoTCfcdg rtiv elg ^ Able to prepare the things ) 

TToXefiov, } required for war. S 

Rule LXIX. Verbs of wondering at, congratulating, 
praising, blaming, something in any one, take the genitive 
of that which is admired, praised, or blamed, <fcc, because 
the quality or action thus admired, &e., excites the feeling 
in question ; as, 

Qavfxd^G) rov dnptov, I wonder at the wild animal. 

'JZnaLVG) tovto 'AyrjoiXdov, I praise this in Jlgesilaus. 
Tovro \iE\L$ovrai rjfitiv, They blame this in us. 

Hence, the genitive often stands alone in exclamations, with 
and without an interjection ; as, r Q Zev (3aoiXev, rr\g Xsttto- 
TTjrog tg)V (f>p£vu)v ! " Oh supreme Jove, the acuteness of his 
intellect /" — "ArtoXXov, rov xaofirjiiaTog ! " Apollo, what a 
pair of jaws /" 



GENITIVE. 



437 



3. Genitive as an Expression of Cause. 
The second division of the causal genitive comprehends 
the genitive which expresses the cause, that is, the object 
which calls forth and causes the activity of the subject. 
The English avails itself of various prepositions ; as, toward, 
for the sake of over, &c. This genitive is used as follows : 

Rule LXX. Many verbs which express a condition of 
the mind ox feeling of the soul, such as verbs of longing and 
desiring, of care, of pain, sorrow, and compassion, of being 
angry and displeased, are followed by the genitive ; and 
this genitive expresses the motive that called forth and caus- 
ed such a feeling ; as, 

'Emdvfiel oltov, He is desirous of food. 

^Tti\LEkovTai tov Kotvov > They take care of the com 
ayadov, $ mon weal. 

Hevduitic e^ei tov natdoc, He mourns for his son. 

UooelScov Kvtc?iO)nog eke- ) Neptune was enraged on ac~ ) 
%6Xg)to, S count of the Cyclops. S 

Remark 1. Verbs of envying also fall under this rule, and 
take the dative of the person with the genitive of the thing ; as, 
tydovelv tlvL tlvoc, " to envy one on any account." 

Remark 2. Verbs of admiring, praising, commending, and 
blaming, which have been partially referred to under Rule LXIX., 
may also be said to belong in some respect to the present rule. 
They have the following constructions: 1. Accusative of the 
person, or accusative of the thing alone, when the admiration ex- 
tends itself to the whole person or thing, or the whole being of 
the person or thing ; as, -d-av/ad^u (or uyauai) rov orpar-nyov, " / 
admire the leader:" d-avfid^co ttjv oofyiav, " I admire wisdom" — 
2. Genitive of the person and accusative of the thing, when I ad- 
mire an action, external manifestation, or particular circum- 
stance of any person (Rule LXIX.) ; as, rovro tiavudfa gov, "I 
admire this in you." — 3. Accusative of the person and genitive of 
the thing, when I admire a person on account of a property ; as, 
&avfj.d£G) tov ^ZoKpdrn rrjc coty'iac, " I admire Socrates for his uris- 
dom." — Instead of the genitive of the thing, a preposition may 
also be used, generally km, with the dative ; as, davfidfa as 
knl ry GO(pla. 

O o 2 



438 



GENITIVE. 



Rule LXXI. Verbs of requital, vengeance, accusation, 
and condemnation, take the genitive of the cause ; this case 
pointing out the fault or crime as the cause of the requital, 
vengeance, &c. ; as, 

'ErLCtaTO avrbv rr\g vnep- > He requited him for his ) 
6aolag, S wanton violence. S 



Remark. The punishment of the crime also stands in the 
genitive ; as, -d-avdrov Kplveiv, "to try one for his life." 

4. Genitive to denote certain Ideas of Exchange. 
The third division of the causal genitive comprises the 
genitive by which certain ideas of exchange are expressed, 
in which one notion is the condition of another, and thus, 
in a certain sense, calls it forth and causes it. According- 
ly, this genitive is found as follows : 

Rule LXXII. The comparative degree, and adjectives 
of the positive degree which involve the notion of a com- 
parative, take the genitive case, this being the genitive of 
the object, from a comparison with which the notion of 
greater or less arises ; as, 

f O vlbg fMLfyv earl rov ) The son is greater than the ) 



Remark 1. Among the positive adjectives that fall under this 
rule may he mentioned the following: namely, the numeral 
multiples in -daioq ; as, dmhaGiog, TpnrTi&ciogy izoTiTianlaoiog. 
So, also, the numerals in -nlovg ; as, SmXovg, TpinXovg, &c. ; as, 
likewise, varepog, TTeptGaog, dig rdcof, &c. 

Remark 2. When it is not a substantive that is compared 
with another, but the quality of a thing expressed by an adjec- 
tive that is considered in its proportion to another quality, and 
compared in degree with it (where, in Latin, quam pro is used), 
then rj Kara or tj npog is put after the comparative ; as, ijOea 




murder. 
To accuse one of impiety. 



Ypd(peadat nva daedetag, 



narpog, 
Ovdevbg devrepog, 



father. 
Second to no one. 



GENITIVE. 



439 



Padvrepa rj Kara Qpij'itcag, \. e., " than can be expected from the 
Thracians" than one meets with among the Thracians, &c. 

Remark 3. The comparative and superlative are both some- 
times followed by the genitive of the reflexive pronouns sfiav- 
rov, aeavrov, eavrov, and the comparative then represents it as 
exceeding what it would have been under ordinary circum- 
stances, while the superlative shows it to have attained to the 
highest possible degree ; thus, Stir^r/aioc kyevero avroc £oi)Tov 
(Herod., viii., 137), " it became as great again as it usually was." 
— And again, eneav 6e apiora avrrj euvrfjc hveiKy {Herod., i., 193), 
" when it produces at the very best" i. e., when it produces most. 



Rule LXXIII. Verbs of ruling, pre-eminence, surpass- 
ing, being prominent, and their opposites, namely, verbs of 
being subject, yielding to, and being inferior, take the geni- 
tive, of course, because they arise from a comparison, and 
therefore imply an antecedent notion of some object or 
standard with which the comparison is made ; as, 
Tevsdoto dvdooetg, Thou rulest over Tenedos. 

v Kp%eiv avdpo)7TG)v dyaOtiv, To rule over good men, 
Heptyeveodac 7-77C /3aotXeo)g > To surpass the king's > 

dvvdp,£G)c:, S power. > 

^ ? v f ~ ~ C The bad are subject to their \ 

Ol TTovrjpot rjrrojvrac tov ) . , . J . _ f 

, n _ < passions {%. e., are infe- > 

eTuVvuiGjv, J ■ . .\ _ . i 

v nor to, yield to them). J 

5. Genitive of Price, Value, Sfc. 
The price or value of any thing stands in the genitive, 
since it is only from an antecedent conception of the thing 
valued, and a comparison between the two, that the notion 
of equality implied in the notion of price or value arises. — - 
Hence we have the following rule : 

Rule LXXIV. Verbs of buying and selling, of exchange 
and barter, as well as all words containing expressions of 
value, take the genitive case ; as, 

'Qvovvrat ravra xprjfjLarGJV i They purchased these things ( 
fieydXojv, S for much money. S 



440 DATIVE, 



Hovcjv ncoXovocv T]\ilv ndv- ) The gods sell us all good f 
ra rd ayaOa oi &eol, S things for toils. S 
Tevx^' rjfieifev xjpvoka %aX- ^ He exchanged golden arms ( 



fCELCOV, 



for brazen. ^ 

'larpbc; ttoXX&v dXXo)v dv- ) A physician is equal in ) 

rdi-ioc. eortv, S value to many other men. S 

rh+ '» > v v / To deem both the bad and\ 

Tcov log)v tov ts fcaicov Kat \ / 
n I , v ~ < s;ood man worthy of equal ) 

ayadov a$tovv, # ( 

\ things. J 



VII. DATIVE. 

I. The dative expresses where, and hence is used to de- 
note, 1. The place in which an action occurs. In prose, 
however, prepositions are generally annexed ; as, ev opec, 
" in the mountain"- — 2. The time in which an action oc- 
curs ; as, ravrxi ~Zj rjjjiepa, " on this very day :" rcoXXolg 
ereoiv, " in many years? Here, also, ev is often found. 
— 3. Society, company, and especially the dative singular 
of collective or appellative nouns in the plural, connected 
with a verb of going or coming ; as, 'KQnvaloi fjXOov ttXtj- 
dec ovfc oXiyo), or rroXXaig vavotv, or crparG), or crpa- 
TLG)racg, &c, and the dative is connected with avrog in the 
same case, to express the notion of at the same time with ; 
as, oi TcoXsfiiot evenifiTTpaoav rrjv ttoXlv avrolg rolg lepolg, 
" the enemy burned the city, together with the sanctuaries." 

II. Secondly, the dative is used to denote an object 
which is striven after, indeed, by the action of the subject, 
but not, as in the accusative, obtained, touched, or hit, but 
only made to participate and be concerned in it. 

Rule LXXV. The place where is put in the dative ; 
and hence all verbs may be followed by a dative ? when it is 
wished to define the place ; as, 

„ T P ~ . ( He slept in a recess of the ) 

Evoe ftv^w KXcocng, ) 

( tent. > 



DATIVE* 



441 



*EkXddi vaiiov, Dwelling in Greece. 

'AfcpoTdrq Kopvcpxj ObXvfi- ) On the loftiest summit of ) 
notOj ) Olympus. S 

Remark 1. Sometimes, however, in poetry, especially in Epic 
verse, the place is conceived of as the antecedent condition of 
the action of the verb, and hence we find verbs of motion with 
a genitive of the way over which the motion proceeds, and 
which is conceived of as a necessary condition of the motion ; 
as, F.pxovraL tteSlolo (II. , ii., 801) : dcsTrpncaov nedloio (II. , ii., 
785), &e. 

Remark 2. To this head belong the dative adverbial forms, 
which are used in both poetry and prose ; as, 'Elevulvi, " at 
Eleusis :" 'VafivovvTL, " at Rhamnus 'lodftol, " at the Isthmus 
(of Corinth):" 'Adr/vnciv, "at Athens:' 11 HXaraiacuv, "at Plataa" 
&c. 

Remark 3. The use of the dative alone is confined mostly to 
poetry ; in prose (and also in poetry) we find this dative more 
exactly defined by the addition of kv, dvd (poet.), a/ifi, rcept, knt } 
fierd (poet.), ivapd, nrpoc, vno. 

Remark 4. Hence this dative is used to express among; as, 
oov Kpdrog earl fjbeyiGTov naatv KvK?iO)7recrat, " whose might is 
greatest among all the Cyclopes." (Od., i., 71.) — So in the 
Homeric phrase, tolglv dveoTrj, "among these arose." 

Remark 5. This local dative is also found after verbs of gov- 
erning, in Homer, more usually than the genitive with dvdaaeiv. 
In these constructions, the idea of continuance and permanency 
seems to be implied. 



Rule LXXVI. The time in which an action occurs is 
also put in the dative, the accident of time being here 
considered as local ; as, 

TptTG) rjjuaTL. On the third day. 

Aevrepco eret, In the second year. 

Remark 1. When, however, time is considered as the ante- 
cedent condition of the action, it is put in the genitive ; whereas 
the dative represents it as the space wherein the action took 
place. 

Remark 2. In prose generally, and in poetry frequently, h is 
added : and sometimes hnl, as in Homer ; trf fjfiaTi rude, "upon 
this day." So, kn' Tjfiari, knc vvktc. 



442 



DATIVE. 



Rule LXXVII. All expressions denoting social inter* 
course, association, and communication, together with verbs 
of going toward, meeting, approaching, and the contrary ; 
as, retiring and giving away : verbs of fighting, disputing, 
and contending : verbs of following, serving, obeying, and 
accompanying: and, lastly, verbs of advising and encour* 
oging, as, napaivelv, ixapaKeXeveodai, take the dative case ; 
as, 

«0,ul« rolg dyadolg A* 7 Assodate with good mm ? 

Spcoirotg, ) * 

Eiixeode rolg deolg, Pray to the gods. 

1 3 I Jo meet ana draw near one. > 
nvi, > 5 

M77 daere rolg TroXefiLoig, Yield not to the foe. 

KaXtig efia^soavro rolg > They fought nobly against ) 

Hepoatg, > the Persians. ? 

Uecdov rolg vo\ioig, Obey the laws. 

Rule LXXVIII. The dative is joined with expressions 
of probability and improbability, of likeness and unlikeness, 
of agreement and difference ; as, 

"Eoiftag dovXcd, ovk avOpti- ) You resemble a slave, not a ) 
7TG) eXevdipo), S freeman. S 

'kvojioiog to) narpt, Unlike his father. 

^rrXiGjjievot rolg avrolg rco > Jlrrayed in the same arms ) 
Kvpco onXotg, S with Cyrus. S 

Rule LXXIX. The dative stands in answer to the ques- 
tions to whom or what 1 for whom or what ? to whosd ad- 
vantage ? to whose disadvantage ? and hence it is joined to 
verbs of giving, granting, offering, indulging, proving use- 
ful to, reproaching, blaming, and, in fine, to all verbs de- 
noting that a thing is done for the benefit or the injury of 
another ; as, 

"E&o/ea ool to f3t6Xtov, I gave you the book, 

'lepevoe f3oi>v Kpovlcovi, He sacrificed an ox to Jupiter. 



DATIVE. 



443 



Oeolc apeafcei, He pleases the gods. 

Tole ftavovoL nXovrog ov- ) Wealth does no good to the ) 
Sev dxpskeL, S dead. S 

'HvGJxXet i]\ilv 6 QlXtnTTog, Philip was giving us trouble. 
Ov p,E\L§o\Lai tg> dvdpdjTTG), I do not blame the man. 



Rule LXXX. All adjectives and other words denoting 
advantage or disadvantage, benefit or injury, likewise take 
the dative case ; as, 

QiXoe 8kslv(x), Friendly to that one. 

'Kyadbv ttj Tcokei, Good for the state. 

'E%0pdc eXevdepca, Hostile to freedom. 

'IZvavTtog v[uv, Opposed to you. 



Rule LXXXI. The dative is put, in general, where an 
action is performed with reference to a person, or a thing 
considered as a person ; as, 

'Avdgiai iraaiv kare rov- ) Ye are undeserving of this > 

tov, S in the judgment of all. > 

, A v , , ~ ~ S He is worthy of honor with ) 

Ai-Loq eart nunc; rv ttoasi, < J J > 

e regard to the state. ) 

Remark. Hence the dative often stands, even with the pass- 
ive, instead of vno with the genitive ; as, &c fioi irporepov dedij- 
/U>r<u, * as has previously been shown by me." — (Vid. page 449.) 



Rule LXXXII. Verbals in -reoc, when used imperson- 
ally, denote necessity, and take the dative of the agent, to- 
gether with the case of their own verbs ; as, 

'EmdvuriTeov eart aot elpn- ) Tr t , • ) 

r ' c You must desirz peace. > 

vijc, > 5 

'Konnreov earC Got dperrjv, You must practice virtue. 

'JZmxeip'nTEOv eart ooi rco ) You must put your hand to ) 

£/oya>, S the work. S 

Remark 1. This construction is analogous to that of the 
gerund in -dum with the verb est in Latin — When verbals in 
-reoc are thus put impersonally, the neuter plural is often used 



444 



DATIVE. 



in place of the neuter singular, particularly in Attic ; as, kmfh- 
[iijTea egtl col elp7)v?ig, aoKTjrea egtl cot apETrjv, &c. 

Remark 2. Sometimes the object becomes the subject, and 
the verbal is referred to it as a passive, in the same gender, 
number, and case, like the Latin participle in dus ; as, cj^eXyrea 
001 7] noTitq korL (Xen., Mem., iii., 6, 3.) — Occasionally, how- 
ever, among the Attic writers, the agent or person is denoted 
by the accusative, because the idea of the impersonal verb Sel, 
with the infinitive, is involved in the verbal adjective ; as, rbv 
povTid/ievov Evdaifxova slvat acxppocvvTjv Sicjkteov kol clgktjteov, 
equivalent to tov fiovkb\iEvov ..... 6el 6i6kelv. 



Rule LXXXIII. The cause, manner, and means, or in- 
strument, of an action are put in the dative ; as, 
4>66g) aTTTjAdov, They departed through fear. 

j / , ( All things were arranged by ) 

Uavra OLererafcro juerpoo, < & 6 y > 

( measure. ) 

Tolv 6(pdaXfJLolv op&fjiev, We see with the two eyes. 

"'Erracov fiaxaipacg, They struck with swords. 

Remark 1. The dative of the manner and instrument is some- 
times more accurately defined by cvv : as, avv (3la } avry ovv 

'KTjXrjKi, &c. 

Remark 2. From the employment of the dative to express the 
instrument seems to have arisen the construction of xpjjcrdat 
with the same case. 

Remark 3. Another mode of expressing the means or instru- 
ment is by dtd, with the genitive ; but these two modes appear 
to have this distinction, namely, that the dative marks the proper 
and more important instrument ; but did, with the genitive, the 
subordinate but immediate, by means of which the use of the 
former becomes practicable. 



Rule LXXXIV. The verbs elfiL, vnapx^, and ytyvojxai, 
when taken for £%0l>, to have, and denoting possession, take 
the possessor in the dative ; as, 

"Oooic ovk fjv apyvpoc, As many as had not money. 

'Ynapxet pot, It belongs to me. 

Eyevovro A^da rpelg nap- ) j^ ec / a na( J tnree daughters. I 



ACCUSATIVE. 445 

Rule LXXXV. An impersonal verb governs the dative ; 
as, 

"Efetrrt \ioi dmevat, It is allowed me to depart. 

Rule LXXXVI. The poets, in particular, often add to 
the dative, especially of a pronoun, another dative, for ex- 
planation or more exact definition ; which, in other lan- 
guages, is put in the genitive ; as, 

r Jove bestowed it on their race \ 
^(plv cbnaoev Zevc yevei, < (literally, on them (viz.), \ 

\ their race), for yevet ocptiv. ) 



VIII. ACCUSATIVE. 

The accusative expresses whither, and denotes, I. In a 
local sense, the aim or point to which the action of the verb 
moves ; here, however, a preposition is generally affixed in 
prose ; as, eig dorv eXQelv, " to come into the city" — 2. In 
a causal sense, the effect (the result, consequence, work), as 
the object which is put into a suffering condition, affected 
and worked out by the action. 

Rule LXXXVII. A verb signifying actively governs the 
accusative ; as, 

0/ "JZXXnvec kvLKnoav rovg > The Greeks conquered the ) 
liepoag, S Persians. ) 

Rule LXXXVIII. Verbs expressing or implying motion 
to take the accusative ; as, 

Xoypel rrjv itoXlv, He proceeds to the city. 

Tfjv vrjaov aty'iKSTO, He came to the island. 

Remark. The sense of direction to, contained in the verbs 
that fall under this rule, is usually, in poetry, always in prose, 
more definitely marked by the prepositions el?, dvd, Kara, vnip, 
etti, TTpog, fierd, 6cc. 

Pf 



446 



ACCUSATIVE. 



Rule LXXXIX. Every verb may take an accusative of 
a cognate noun ; as, 

KivdvvevoG) tovtov klvSv- } I will encounter this dan- ) 
rov, S ger. S 

'HoOevrjaav ravrrjv dode- ) They were sick with this ) 
vetav, S sickness. S 

'Em^Xovrai ndoav ha^ ) They m ^ i 

Xetav, b ? 

ILoXejAOV noXe^rjaofJiev, We will wage war. 

Remark 1. The same idiom prevails in Latin; as, currere 
cur sum, vivere vitam, &c., and also in our own tongue, " to run 
a race," u to live a life" 

Remark 2. Many verbs which are not, in good writers, fol- 
lowed by their cognate substantives, are in later writers found 
with them. (Lobeck, Paral., 509.) 

Remark 3. Adjectives sometimes take this cognate accusa- 
tive ; as, kclkovc nuaav mfdav (Plat., Rep., 490, D.) : dovhoe fie- 
yiaraq ftcjireLac kclI SovXecac {Id., ib., 579, D.) : ao<j)bc tt]v etceivuv 
&o(f)lav, [lyre afiadrjc dfiaOlav (Id., Apol., 22, E.). 



Rule XC. Distance and space are put in the accusative, 

as are also value and quantity ; as, 

Hopeveadai odov, To go on a journey. 

, . , , v f ~ f c- , ( It is distant eight days* ) 
Aneyei otcro) rjuepcov ooov, < ° J > 

t journey. ) 

'Unopevaaro 6vo aradtovc, He proceeded two stadia. 

Avvarat eddofirjfcovra fjtvdg, It is equal to seventy mince. 

Remark 1. The preposition irapd is often employed to render 
the definition more exact ; and, in the case of an uncertain 
quantity, the prepositions etc, em, dfupc, rrepl, Kara, irpoc. 

Remark 2. Here, also, must be classed the adverbial accu- 
satives, izoTCkd, " often rd noTikd, " for the most part 6c rd 
KoXXd, tto&v (ttoXXov), fjteya, fieydTia, fieyiara, bTilyov, [Wipov, &C. 



Rule XCI. Time how long 1 is put in the accusative ; as, 
"Rva \i7\va [level, He remains one month. 

Avo vvtcrac (pvXdaaetv^ To watch for two nights. 



ACCUSATIVE. 



447 



m ^ v » { I was drinking; during this } 

Tovtov rov ypovov emvov, < ° ° > 

Remark I. When the time is in the genitive, it is considered 
as the cause or antecedent condition of the action, tovto syeve- 
to TavTjjc Trjs i]fiipa$, " on this very day ,*" but ravrnv rr}v rip,Epav, 
"during this very day.''' So, vvKTog, "at night;''' but vvtcra, 
"during the night." Sometimes we find the point of time in 
the accusative, but this only in general notions of time, such as 
"seasonably,'' "lately" &c, where the accusative stands for 
the cognate substantive ; as, t/kovtec dcoplav, equivalent to t/kov- 
reg aopov r)%iv (Aristoph., Acharn., 23) : ttjv LJpnv stray iveetv cmot, 
alya<;, where ttjv upnv is equivalent to upalov {Herod., ii., 2). 

Remark 2. Hence arise many adverbial expressions ; as, 
ij/xog, Tijfiog, Epic (equivalent to vfiap, r^uap), kvvy^ap, navry- 
fiap, vvKTop, Ttavvvxct, O7jjjiepov, avpiov, aKfxrjv, apx^v, to teTiev- 
ralov, iTporepov, &c. 

Remark 3. Duration of time is also expressed by the prepo- 
sitions 6td, vko, dvd, &c. 

Rule XCII. When, in addition to the whole subject 
which receives the action of the verb, particular specifica- 
tion is also made of a part, in which this action is princi- 
pally shown, both the whole and part stand, especially with 
the poets, as proximate objects in the accusative ; as, 

He wounded him, as he ) 
came, on the breast. S 
Tpdfiog virrjXds yvla enao~ ) Trembling came upon each ^ 
rov, S one in his limbs. N 

Remark 1. This is called the construction nad' oaov nal fie- 
pof, and must not be confounded with the real double accusa- 
tive, to which we shall presently come. It is merely the accu- 
sative of the patient and the part, the part being put in apposi- 
tion to the patient, of which it is only a more accurate expres- 
sion. Sometimes we find the part substituted for the patient, 
which is put in the dative of advantage ; as, Sane 6e Qpevas 
"EtcTopt fivBog. (II. , v., 493.) 

Remark 2. The accusative continues also in passive verbs, 
though the former patient has now become the subject of the 
verb, as it defines the exact operation of the affection or state 
signified by the passive verb ; as, K^nyelg ryv KE<pa?i7]v tteIeke'i 



Mlv iovra (3dXe GrrjOog, 



448 



ACCUSATIVE, 



(Herod., vi., 38): Xvirri ff&f diifyOapaai (ppevac {Eurip , HeL, 
In all such constructions, however, we may simply have re- 
course to the doctrine of "nearer definition," as laid down in 
Rule 95. ; 

Rule XCIII. Many verbs have, in Greek, a double ac- 
cusative, namely, one of the person and another of the 
thing, the two notions of the act or effect (or its equivalent) 
being regarded as coincident ; as, 

T ^ * i „ „ ~ ^ He has done many evils to ) 

Kaaa noAAa eopye Tpwag, < , J > 

\ ifte Aroians. y 

9 Ay add elirsv airovc, He said good things of them. 

'Elpero dnavrag rov nalda, He asked all about his son. 

Tovg [ladnrdg edlSa^s dps- ) He taught his disciples vir- ) 
ttjv, S tue. S 

Remark t. Those verbs which, besides the notion of state or 
feeling, act, effect, motion, &c, implied in the verb, imply far- 
ther the operation of any of these on some person or thing, as 
the patient or object affected thereby, have an accusative of 
that patient or object as implied in the verb, and making up 
the notion of the whole verbal operation, inasmuch as all such 
notions of action imply the notion of the patient. Under this 
head fall verbs signifying to do good or evil to one, to speak well 
or ill of one, to ask, to demand, to teach, to take away, &c. 

Remark 2. It is not meant, either that the verbs implying 
these notions always have a double accusative, but only that 
generally, or frequently in good writers, they are so constructed, 
as both the notions more or less frequently require to be de- 
fined ; or that no verbs, except those implying these notions, 
ever have a double accusative. This construction is found with 
other verbs in goods writers, when they may wish to define the 
exact nature of the verbal operation. 



Rule XCIV. Many verbs which govern two accusatives 
in the active, retain one of these in the passive ; that is, 
the accusative of the suffering object becomes the nomina- 
tive, but the accusative of the thing remains ; as, 
5 Epwrw^a^ rijv yvcDfX'rjv, I am asked my opinion, 
kiddotcofiat, fiovoinrjv, I am taught music. 
'A<paipov[iai rrjV apxrjv, I am deprived of the magistracy. 



PASSIVE VERBS. 



449 



Remark. Even with some verbs which, in the active, are con- 
strued with the dative of the person and the accusative of the 
thing, the dative of the person is changed into the nominative, 
but the accusative of the thing is left unaltered when they are 
passive. The following are generally thus treated : eTrirdrreLv, 
ennpeneiv, kixicTzXktLv tlvc tl ; as, knir petrosal, E7UTdTTO{j,ai, 

€7UOT£%Xo[J,aL T7]V <j>v7l CLKTjV . 

Rule XCV. The accusative is also used to express a 
nearer definition, that is, it frequently stands with intransi- 
tive verbs and adjectives containing a general expression, 
and indicates the part or more definite object to which this 
expression must be principally referred. This is general- 
ly expressed in English by different prepositions, especial- 
ly by in, as to, with respect to ; as, 
Tdv datcrvXov dXycb rovrov, I feel pain in this finger. 
Hodag (bitvq 'A^AAei/f, Achilles, swift as to his feet. 
yr\ s t v { He was a Syrian as to his ) 

f native country. S 
ILevrrjuovra ttoScov to vipoc, Of fifty feet in height. 

Remark. This is commonly, but erroneously, explained by an 
ellipsis of Kara. No such preposition, however, is here under- 
stood ; on the contrary, the accusative is required by the very 
nature of the clause or sentence, since it always serves to desig- 
nate the object upon which an action immediately passes. 



IX. PASSIVE VERBS. 

Rule XCVI. Verbs of a passive signification are com- 
monly followed by a genitive of the agent, governed by the 
prepositions viro, and, ere, napd, or npog ; as, 
f O vovq vn f olvov diacpdel- > The understanding is im- > 

perai, S paired by wine. % 

"KXkai yvtifiai aft enda- ) Other opinions were ad- > 

tg)v eXsyovro, S vanced by each. S 

Rule XCVII. Passive verbs take, also, a dative of the 
agent, considered as the instrument whereby the state, 

Pp2 



450 



INFINITIVE. 



&c, is produced, not as the cause whence it springs ; 
as, 

'A^e/l/l^t eddfin, He was slain by Jlchilles. 

Tavrd fioc XeXenrat^ These things have been said by me. 
Remark. Two or more datives may be joined to the same 
verb expressing different relations ; as, AaKedaifiovwiat ovxva 
epyoi.ai re ical yvu)[iyGL airoTiafiTrpwdeic. (Herod., vi., 70.) 



X. INFINITIVE. 
Rule XCVIII. The infinitive is used to express the cause 
or end of an action ; as, 

QeXo) adetv, I wish to sing. 

Rule XCIX. The infinitive, with the neuter of the arti- 
cle prefixed, is used as a species of verbal noun ; and very 
frequently the article is thus appended to an entire clause, 
of which the infinitive forms a part ; as, 

Td Xveiv, The loosening. 

To ra xPW ara £X etv > The having money. 
Remark. The infinitive without the article often appears, in 
like manner, as a noun, and becomes the subject of a verb ; as, 

ov kcikov j3aGL?iev£iv, " reigning is no bad thing.'' 9 

Rule C. The infinitive in Greek is governed by adjec- 
tives, and denotes the respect in w^hich the idea of the ad- 
jective is to be applied ; as, 

e T s ✓ , / { They appear calculated to ) 

Iicavoi repTTSiv (paLvovrai, { . ■ / 

c delight. 3 

Ov Setvog sort Xsyetv, dXV > He is not able in speakings ) 

dSvvarog oiyav, S but unable to keep silence. $ 

Remark. This is imitated in Latin by the poets ; as, idoneus 

delectare ; utilis facere. In prose, however, the gerund, with a 

preposition, is the regular construction ; as, idoneus ad dclectan- 

dum, &c. 

Rule CI. The infinitive is used with cjare, more rarely 
with we, to express the consequence of an event indicated 
by the leading verb ; as, 



INFINITIVE. 



451 



^tXoTiii6rarog fjv 6 Kvpog, 
chore Tvavra vnof-ieli 
rov eiraiveloOac evena 



Cyrus was very ambitious^ 

so as to endure all things \ 
ojare navra vixoiiuvat I . > 

j or the sake oj being 

praised. 

Remark 1. The particle tig is also employed with the infini- 
tive, but more rarely than tiers. 

Remark 2. The indicative is used with wcrre, in place of the 
infinitive, when the result or effect is to be represented as a 
fact — something really following from the principal verb, but 
not immediately or of necessity ; hence tiers may frequently 
be translated by " wherefore" or itaque. Thus, rayy ds koI ra 
sv rti Trapadeiou d-npla avaXtifcsi — hare 6 ' kervaynq otner' sl%sv 
avrti evXksysvv -&?jpla. (Xen., Cyr., i., 4, 5.) 

Remark 3. The infinitive is used, and not the indicative, 
when the result or effect is to be represented, not as an actual 
fact, but as supposed to follow from the principal clause, directly 
and of necessity, so that logically the two clauses are very 
closely connected ; hence it is used in the following cases : 
1. When the result or effect follows from, and is, as it were, 
implied in the nature of the thing. An example of this is given 
under the rule. — 2. When the result or effect includes the no- 
tion of an aim or purpose ; as, eKonovvrse Kcupbv tiers rovg av- 
dpac etieat, " watching an opportunity to save the men' 1 '' (Thucyd., 
iv., 23). — 3. When tiers implies the notion of on condition that, 
or, in Latin, ea conditione ut ; as, apxsiv 'ETiXt/vuv, tier' avrovq 
vttclkoveiv ftaeiTisl, " to rule over the Greeks, on condition that they 
themselves obey the king" — 4. When the notion of the principal 
verb is compared with some result or effect. If this is equal 
to the result or effect, the predicate of the principal clause is 
in the positive degree, and this case is the same as that given 
under 1. If it is unequal, it is in the comparative, and the de- 
pendent clause is introduced by r) tiers : thus, ti real Kvpov, ra 
fisv oltirjia 7/v fis^o /ca/ca, r) tiers avatiXaisiv. — 5. Usually, when a 
demonstrative, such as ovruc, stands in the principal clause, 
tiers is used to introduce the dependent clause. 



Rule CII. Most verbs which take the infinitive have 
also a personal object, and this personal object stands in 
the case which the verb itself is accustomed to govern; 
as, 



452 



INFINITIVE. 



KeXevo oe ypdtyeiv, 
'~EnoTpvvw oe \)bd%eaQai, 
'Hyoviiai oe afiaprdvetv, 
Leo\iai oov eXdelv, 
ZvfidovAevG) 001 oiydv, 



I order thee to write. 

I urge thee to fight. 

I consider thee to be wrong. 

I entreat of thee to come. 

I advise thee to be silent. 



Rule CIII. But when the leading verb is one that governs 
the accusative (yerbum sentiendi, &c), and the subject of 
this verb is also the object of it, the accusative of the per- 
sonal pronoun is not annexed to the infinitive, as in Latin, 
but is entirely omitted ; as, 

OlofiaL dfiaprdvetv, I think that I err. 

Olet dfiaprdveiv, Thou thinkest that thou dost err. 

Olerai d\Lap~dveiv, He thinks that he errs. 

Remark. But whenever the subject of the infinitive is to be 
rendered emphatically prominent, as especially occurs in an- 
titheses, the accusative stands with the infinitive, as in Latin, 
even though the subject and the object be the same; as, 01 
AlyvnTLOL eavrovg npurovc yeveodai avOpunov evSfiL^ov, " the 
Egyptians thought that they (i. e., not any other race) were the most 
ancient of men." {Herod., 2, 15.) So, also, Kpolcroc kvofiigev 
eavrov elvai tt&vtuv oXSlurarov, " Croesus thought that he him- 
self was the happiest of all" 

Rule CIV. When an adjective or substantive is joined 
to the infinitive as a predicate, it stands in the same case 
as the personal object ; and in those cases where the sub- 
ject of a verb is also its object (Rule CIII.), it appears in 
the nominative. This is called attraction with the infini- 
tive ; as, 

Nom. with Inf. f O orparTjybg ecf>7] TrpodvjJLog elvai em6or}- 
delv. 

Gen. with Inf. Aeofiai aov Trpodvfiov elvai. 
Dat. with Inf. ^v^ovXevo) col TrpodvfiG) elvai. 
Acc. with Inf. 'EnorpyvG) oe TTpodvjjLov elvai. — "JZcpTj os 
evdatfiova elvai. 
Remark. Very often, however, the predicative definitions an- 
nexed to the infinitive, and relating to the object of the govern- 



INFINITIVE. 



453 



ing principal verb, stand not in the case in which this object 
stands, but in the accusative. Thus, 1. (instead of the geni- 
tive) oi avfifj-axoi kSejjdrjaav Wdrjvatuv eavrolg (Sorjdovg yevscdai. 
— 2. (instead of the dative) evsreiTiaro rolg -frepanovGL haSovrag 
avrbv anoKTelvac. 



Rule CV. The Greeks are fond of changing the imper- 
sonal construction with the infinitive into the personal, by- 
making the subject of the dependent infinitive the subject 
of the principal verb, and referring the impersonal expres- 
sion, as a predicate, to this subject ; as, 
Alfcaiog elfjit rovro rcpdrreLV, for Aiicaiov kort fie tovto 
TTpdrreiv* 

Rule CVI. The infinitive is used in Epic, and some- 
times other poets, and even in Attic prose, in place of the 
imperative, to express a command or wish that the person 
addressed would do something ; as, 

'TjiEiq 6" eprjTveiv eneeaoiv ) Do ye restrain by expostu- ) 

(//., ii., 75), ) lations. S 

Q&okelv MvKTivac bpdv ) . _ r ) 

. ' > bay that thou seest My cenz. } 

(Soph., EL, 9), > 9 * * 5 

$dvai rifidc evpnicevai } „ . , „ , 

' ' ' 4 x I Say that we have found. 

(Plat., Rep., p. 473, A.), > 

Remark 1. The infinitive here depends on a verb of " wish- 
ing" or "desiring" in the mind of the speaker, but can only 
stand for the second person singular or plural. No such verb, 
however, must be supposed to be actually understood ; for the 
phrase, in all probability, is a remnant of the ancient simplicity 
of the language, the action required being expressed by means 
of the verb used absolutely, or the mood of the verb which of 
itself indicated the action, without any reference to other parts 
of speech, as children use the infinitive for the imperative with- 
out thinking of an ellipsis. 

Remark 2. The infinitive is also used in forms of wishing or 
praying, in invocations and entreaties that the person address- 
ed would cause some one else to do something. The accusa- 
tive is joined with the infinitive, and the two together stand as 
the object of a verb, expressing or implying the notion of wish- 



454 



PARTICIPLE. 



ing or desiring, such as edele, evxofiai, or doe, though no such 
verb is, in fact, understood ; as, Zev Hvdiore — , firj irph en' rjeltov 
dvvat koX &7n fcvetyae e?idelv. (II., ii., 412.) 

Remark 3. The infinitive, moreover, is sometimes used alone, 
of the first and second persons, in questions expressing reluct- 
ance ; as, (5 f3acn?Lev, Korepov Xeyeiv npoc as, rj aiyav ; " king, 
must I speak unto thee, or be silent ?" (Herod., i., 88): a SelXot, 
ttog' Ifiev ; " Ah, wretched ones, whither are ye (fated) to go V 9 
(Od., x., 431.) 

Remark 4. The infinitive, lastly, stands alone with at yap or 
elds, as an expression of a wish, in the place of the optative, 
with the nominative, where tityehov, according to some, is to be 
supplied, but where, in fact, there is no more of an ellipsis than 
in the preceding instances ; thus, al yap, Zev re narep, — roloq 
euv — e(j>eard/ytevaL ical afivveiv. (Od., xxiv., 375.) 



XI. PARTICIPLE. 

Rule CVII. The participle is put after a verb, and in the 
nominative case, when the reference is to some state as 
existing at the time on the part of the subject, or to some 
action as being performed by it ; as, 
Olda dv7]rog &v, I know that I am mortal. 

fyaivETai 6 vdfiog rj^dg ) The law appears to be in- ) 

fiXarcTtev, ) juring us. 5 

IT avaaods ddiKovvreg, Cease acting wrongfully. 

Remark 1. This construction, like that of the nominative 
with the infinitive, falls under the general head of attraction, 
and is common to many classes of verbs, some of which will 
be found mentioned in the subsequent rules. 

Remark 2. When the participle is thus in the nominative by 
attraction, the Latins would use either the pronoun with the 
infinitive ; as, sensit se errdsse ; or, in future time, the future in 
-urus with esse ; as, sensit se lapsurum esse ; or sometimes the 
Greek construction, sensit medios delapsus in hostes. In similar 
cases, in English, we should use either the pronoun and infini- 
tive ; as, " I know myself to be mortal;' 1 '' or the finite verb with 
" that," " I know that I am mortal. 11 And, as a general rule, such 
Latin and English expressions may be translated into Greek 
by this construction when the verbal notion of the participle is 



PARTICIPLE. 



455 



conceived to exist antecedently to or coincidently with the no- 
tion of the verb. 

Rule CVIII. If the subject belonging to the participle 
stands with the principal verb as the remote object in the 
genitive or dative, the participle, in like manner, takes the 
genitive or dative ; as, 

'Hodofirjv avrcov olofievcov ) I perceived that they fancied ) 
elvat ootiordruv, $ themselves to be very wise. $ 

Ovdenore fzersfjieXrjoe \ioi ) I never repented of having ) 
oiyrjoavTi, S been silent. S 

Remark. When a reflexive pronoun stands with the verb, 
the participle can be put in either of two cases, according as it 
is referred to the subject contained in the verb or pronoun ; as, 
ovvoida e/xavrC) co<pbc &v, " lam conscious to myself of being wise ; n 
and gclvtC) cvvydeLe adunovvTL, " thou wast conscious to thyself of 
acting wrongfully." 

Rule CIX. The verb " to be ashamed" takes the parti- 
ciple when the action of which one is ashamed is perform- 
ed ; but the infinitive when the action is declined through 
shame ; as, 

Aloxyvofiat TTOiTjoag, I am ashamed at having done it. 
Aiaxvvo^at epeodat, I am ashamed to ask. 

Rule CX. The verbs "to commence" &c, take the par- 
ticiple when the assigned state has already begun to take 
place ; the infinitive when it is just about to take place ; 
as, 

f O %u\l&v rjp^aro yevdfievog, The winter had come on. 



Rule CXI. The verb " to hear" takes the participle when 
a fact is adduced which we perceive with our own ears ; 
the infinitive when some thing is assigned which we hear 
from the narrative of others ; as, 



r O %u\l&v 7]px^ T0 yijvea- 
Oai, 



The winter was beginning to 
come (i. e., it drew near, 
but was not yet come). 



456 



PARTICIPLE. 



Rnovaa rov AriuooOevT} ) _ . 7 ^ . -J 
" > I heard Demosthenes speak. \ 

'AfcovG) rbv AqfiOGdev?) Xey- ) I hear (i. e., I am told) that 
eiv, ) Demosthenes says. 



Rule CXII. The verb (paiveoOat takes the participle in 
the signification " to be evident" " to be manifest" but the 
infinitive in the signification "to seem" "to have the ap- 
pearance as 3 

'E(palvero tcXateiv, He was just as though he wept, 
^(patvero ickaicov, He evidently wept. 

Remark. Some other verbs, which have a different meaning 
when construed with the participle, and with the infinitive, may 
here be enumerated : 

1. Eidevai and emaraaOai, with the participle, " to know" 
with the infinitive, "to know how to do something (to be able) ;" 
as, olda (or emarafiat) fieovg ceSdfievog, " I know that I honor the 
gods but aeSeadai, " I know how to honor the gods." 

2. Mavddvew, with the participle, " to understand" with the 
infinitive, u to learn;" as, fiavdavu oofybg &v, "I know that I am 
wise ;" G0(j>6g elvat, " I learn to be wise." 

3. TiyvuoKEiy, with the participle, " to know" with the infini- 
tive, " to learn" " to judge" " to conclude ;" as, ytyvuoKG) dyadovg 
ovrac Tolg GTpaTt6raic tovc ay&vag, "I know (I understand) that 
contests are beneficial to the soldiers ;" but dyadovg elvat, " I judge 
(/ consider) that" &c. 

4. Mefj,V7ja6ac y with the participle, " to be mindful," with the 
infinitive, "to think of doing something" "to endeavor" "to in- 
tend ;" as, fiifivnTat ev iroirjoac tovc noTilrag, " he remembers hav- 
ing done good," &c. : ev TroifjGat, " he strives (he wishes) to 
do," &c. 

5. 'kyyeTikeiv, with the participle, denotes the announcement 
of a real event ; with the infinitive, of things uncertain and 
merely conceived ; as, 6 'kacvpLoe eig ttjv x&P av ey^aXkav dyy- 
UTieTai, where a fact is referred to ; but h\ib6XKeiv ayyQJkera^ 
which shows that whether he has actually invaded the country 
is uncertain. 

6. Aeifcvvvai and airoQatveiv, with the participle, " to show," 
"to prove" with the infinitive, "to teach;" as, Idei^d-ae admri- 
aavra, " I showed (I proved) that you were a wrong-doer ;" but j) 



PARTICIPLE. 



457 



fiovTJq kiuxiv^v Kal npo66r?]v elvai nal kclkovovv vfilv anetyaivev, 
"the Senate taught" &c. 

7. TLoislv, with the participle, " to render" with the infinitive, 
" to cause as, ttoiu oe ye?Mvra, — "kol& ae yeTidv. 



Rule CXIII. To some verbs which merely express sub- 
ordinate definitions of an action, the Greeks add the parti- 
ciple of the verb which expresses the principal action. 
Such verbs are rvy%dvu, Xavddvto, <f)8dvo), dtareXeo), &c, 
which, in translation, are often rendered by adverbs ; as, 

"Etvxov rrapovreg, They chanced to be present. 

"EXaOev evepyercov, He conferred kindnesses secretly. 

Qdavei noitiv, He does it before another. 

AiareXeo) (pevyuv, I always avoid. 

Remark 1. Tvyxdvo answers to the Latin forte; liavdavcj, to 
clam; and <}>ddvG), to pros,. — The English language quite changes 
the construction in the case of these verbs, since it expresses 
the action denoted by the participle by means of a finite verb, 
and that denoted by the above verbs, generally by a mere adverb. 

Remark 2. Tvyx^vo) is used in every case in which an event 
is brought on, not with our intention, but by the casual co-opera- 
tion of external circumstances, or the natural course of things ; 
generally, however, it cannot be translated into English. 



Rule CXIV. A participle and verb are best translated as 
two verbs with the copulative conjunction ; as, 
Trjv olfccav rrpcdfievog > He bought the house and > 

anrjXOe, > departed. S 

Rule CXV. A participle, with a substantive whose case 
depends upon no other word, is put in the genitive abso- 
lute ; as, 

'Etceivov elirovTog, ndvreg ) He having spoken, all were > 
eoiyuv, S silent. ) 

Tov natdbg yeXtivrog, K.v- ) The boy laughing, Cyrus 
pog einev, S said. 

Remark 1. In the construction of participles we must distin- 
guish two cases. The subject of the participle either coincides 

Qq 



458 



PARTICIPLE. 



with that of the predicate of the sentence or is different from If. 
In the former case, the participle must agree with the subject 
of the predicate, as an attributive participle, in gender, number, 
and case ; as, 6 Kvpog ye2,6>v slnev, oi izaideg yeTiuvreg elizov, 
&c. : in the latter case, the participle stands with its subject in 
the genitive ; as, rov natdbg yeXfivrog, 6 Kvpog eliTev 3 and this 
combination is called, in grammar, the genitive absolute. 

Remark 2. This so-called genitive absolute is to be referred 
either, 1. To the causal genitive, the action expressed by the 
substantive and participle in the genitive being considered as 
the antecedent cause or condition of the action of the verb, or 
the sentence with which it is joined ; as, op&v, rov xupiov x a ~ 
Xtrzov ovrog, Tovg Tpivpdpxovg . . . . dnoKvovvrag (Thucyd., iv., 11), 
where tov xupiov xaheirov bvrog expresses the cause of the hes- 
itation of the trierarchs : or, 2. The genitive of time ; as, Kvpov 
paaiXwovTog, "while Cyrus was reigning; 17 though this notion 
is frequently more accurately defined by em; as, km Kvpov 
fiaoiTievovTOQ : or, 3. The genitive of place ; as, ug avrov dcadr]- 
GOfiivov. (Herod., i., 208.) 

Rule CXVI. We also find, though but very seldom, the 
dative in the absolute construction with the participle, as 
expressing the notion of " when" defined by some action 
or state ; as, 

UepuovTi tgj eviavrcd, When the year came to a close, 

'Elpyofievoig avrolg rr\g ) When they were cut off from > 
tiaXdoorjc, > the sea. S 

Remark. Care must, however, be taken not to consider pas- 
sages of ancient authors as proofs of this usage where the da- 
tive can by any means be explained in a dependent sense. 

Rule CXVII. Instead of the genitive absolute, the nomi- 
native is also sometimes used, and, indeed, almost always 
when the participle stands without any definite subject : 
consequently, in the case of impersonal verbs ; as, e%6v 
(from £%eori, it is allowed), or impersonal phrases ; as, 
alaxpov bv (from alaxpov egtlv, it is disgraceful) : thus, 
TLapbv avro) (SaoiXea ye- ) When it was in his power > 

veoOac, S to become king. S 



PARTICIPLE, 



459 



. . , . , VN , , { Why do you remain, when \ 
ma tl ueveic, etov ants- ) . . „ , , ( 

r < it is allowed you to de- > 

\ part 2 / 

Remark 1. So, also, diov, "it being needful" or "fitting:" 
66%av avroic, " it having appeared good unto them :" npooTjKov, 
'■'it being proper" or "becoming.'''' Also, passive participles; 
as, dcdoyfievov, "it having been decreed:" elprjiievov, "it having 
been said." And, again, adjectives in -ov ; as, aioxpov ov, it 
being disgraceful :" udrfkov ov, " it being uncertain :" ddvvarov 
ov, "it being impossible" &c. 

Remark 2. The particle of comparison, is joined both to 
a simple participle and one that is in the genitive or nomina- 
tive absolute, when what is expressed by the participle is to be 
denoted as something set before the mind as a subjective view 
of the agent. In English, it may be translated by as if because 
forsooth, because, with the intention, under the idea, &c. Thus, 

Simple Participle. — &av/id£ovTcu, he cofyoi re nal evrvxelc yeye- 
VTj/aevoc, " they are regarded with wonder, as if they have been both 
wise and fortunate :" 'Ayavatcrovaiv, 6c \ieyd\uv ri/itiv direoTEpT]- 
fzevot, " they grieve, under the idea that they have been deprived of 
great honors equivalent to fiyovfievoi [leyaTiuv tl/llcov direoTe- 
prjcdai. 

Genitive Absolute. — Tlaprjyyeihev avroic TrapaGKEva&odat 6c fid- 
XVC £GO{j.iv7]c, " he directed them to get themselves ready, under the 
idea that a battle was about to take place ;" equivalent to vo/ulfav 
fiux^v fceodai : 'EKijpvrrov etjcevai navrac QrjBalovc, 6c rtiv tv- 
pavvuv redveuTuv, " they made proclamation that all the Thebans 
go forth, because the tyrants were dead." 

Remark 3. A peculiar use of the genitive absolute, in con- 
nection with 6c, occurs with the verbs eldivai, eTrlaraoOai, vo- 
elv, exetv -yv6fi7)v, diatcelcdai ttjv yvofiqv, QpovTi&iv, and also 
sometimes with teyetv, and similar verbs, with which the ac- 
cusative with the infinitive ought properly to stand, instead of 
the genitive absolute. The genitive signifies that the action of 
the participle is the cause of the state or action expressed by 
the verb. The consequence proceeding from the genitive is 
usually denoted by ovtg> prefixed to the predicate ; as, 6c huov 
ovv lovrof, oivn av teal vfielc, ovto) rrjv yv6firjv ex eTe i " res ^ as ' 
sured, then, that I will go whithersoever you even may literally, 
" as if I then were going whithersoever, &c., so entertain the opin- 
ion." (Xen., Anab., i., 3, 6.) 



460 



PREPOSITIONS. 



PREPOSITIONS. 
General Remarks. 

1. As language expresses, not only the order of internal thought, 
but also the circumstances of external things ; and as the relations 
in which these things stand to us in respect of their position were 
too manifold to be sufficiently defined by the simple powers of the 
cases, it happened that, as men examined into and comprehended 
the position of external things, some farther mode of expression be- 
came necessary, and cases of certain words, which, from their orig- 
inal meaning, were fitted for the expression of these relations, were 
so frequently used to express them, that at last they were appropri- 
ated to this function, and lost, more or less, their original meaning; 
as, &7FO, napd, while x (i P lv -> dwv v > which are, so to say, in the tran- 
sition-state between cases and prepositions, being sometimes used 
as one, sometimes as the other, will illustrate the mode by which 
prepositions arose. 

2. But, though a relation which was implied in the powers of the 
original cases might be, and generally was, for the sake of clear- 
ness, expressed by a preposition, yet it does not follow that the orig- 
inal power of the cases to express this relation was, either in theory 
or practice, wholly lost ; so that we find the same relation express- 
ed sometimes by the original, more concise, and vivid form of the 
case, at others by the later and more accurate form of the preposi- 
tion. 

3. Hence may be seen the mistake of explaining the construction 
of cases by the ellipsis of a preposition, making the preposition the 
original and most perfect, the case the later and defective form ; 
thus shutting out from view the real state of the case, and teaching 
the student to rest contented with an unphilosophical pretended ex- 
planation, instead of leading him to search out the abstract powers 
of the cases, which were entirely obscured by thus supplying a prep- 
osition whenever they most really came into play. 

Prepositions in Greek govern the genitive, dative, or ac- 
cusative. — Some govern only one case, others two cases, 
and others, again, three, as follows : 

Genitive only, 'Avtl, 'Atto, 'E/c or 'Ef, and ITpd. 

Dative only, 'Ev and 2vv. 

Accusative only. E^ or 'Ef. 

Genitive and Accusative, Aid, Kara, and 'Tnep. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



461 



Dative and Accusative, 'Ai>a. 

Genitive, Dative, and > 'A^cpc, 'E7U, Merd, Uapd, Uepi, 
Accusative, S IIpoc, "Tiro. 

(A.) Prepositions with one Case. 

I. Genitive only. 

1. 'Avrc (Sanscrit ati, "above,'' "beyond;" Latin ante ; Lithu- 
anian ant ; Gothic and, anda). — Original meaning, " before" "face to 
face" "over against ;" then, for, instead of, in the place of ; as, 
uTTjvat dvrl rivog, "to stand in place of one :" dovAog avrl (3aGi?Jcoc, 
" a slave instead of a king avrl -rjfiipag vv% eyevero, " it became night 
in the place of day :" dvO' ov, " wherefore." — In composition its original 
meaning occasionally shows itself ; as, dvTirdTTuv, " to array 
against dvrOxyuv, " to contradict" 

Remark. The reason why the prepositions dvrl and npo are 
connected with the genitive is, that the Greek language regards 
the relation of before, not merely as local, but as a relation of 
dependence, inasmuch as the genitive denotes the place or ob- 
ject to which another object belongs, as it were. This holds 
good, also, in reference to the prepositions vnep, npog, did, dptyi, 
nepl, eni, and vno, with the genitive, because the genitive 
points out the place or object as the supporter of the action. 

2. 'Atto (Epic anal ; Sanscrit apa ; Latin ab ; Gothic af ; old Ger- 
man aba, ab, abe, abo). Original and leading meaning, from, and it 
has reference either to place, time, or the assigning of the cause, or- 
igin, or means of accomplishing a thing. — L Relation of place; 
as, dnb rrjc n6?iecog r/Wev, " he came from the city :" dnb x^ovoc, "from 
the ground:" dft Innov, "from on horseback." — 2. Relation of time, 

• "from, since, after ;" as, dnb rov naXaiov, "from of old :" dnb delnvov, 
"after a meal." — 3. Relation of cause, origin, or means, "from, 
with, by means of;" as, dnb dinaioavvng, "from a love of justice :" oi 
anb Trig arodg, " the Stoics" (the philosophers, from, i. e., deriving 
their doctrine from the porch where Zeno was wont to lecture) : oi 
dnb U?MTG)vog, " the Platonics :" netyvev dnb dpyvpeoio (3loio, " he slew 
(him) by means of a silver bow." — It must be borne in mind, that 
when dnb refers to place, it denotes the place at or near which any 
one is or was ; whereas the place within is expressed by e/c. 

3. 'Ek or 'E£ (the former before a consonant, the latter before a 
vowel). Original meaning, out of. — 1. Relation of place; as, en 
Trig noleug, " out of the city" which presupposes that one has been 

Q q 2 



462 



PREPOSITIONS. 



in the city, whereas and Tfjg ttoTicdc merely implies that one has been 
near the city. — 2. Relation of time; as, en tlvoc xpovov; u since 
what time?" kg ov, "since" (supply xpovov). — 3. Relation of origin, 
means, or cause ; as, ra £K TtaTpbc npoGTaxOivTa, " the things com- 
manded by a father :" etc onrjTtTpov odonropelv, " to travel by means of 
staves." — Other phrases, falling under some one or other of these 
heads, are as follows : e/c ■dakaTTnc, " on the side toward the sea :" k% 
eu, " at dawn :" e% rjuepac, " since it became day ." f/c rov irodbc icpe- 
liaaai TLvd, "to hang one by the foot:" e/c rov dyavove, "unawares :" 
k% (iTTpocdoKTjTov, " unexpectedly." 

4. Upo (Sanscrit pra ; Latin pro, pra ; Lithuanian pro, pra ; Gothic 
faura, faur). Original and leading meaning, before, for. — 1. Re- 
lation of place ; as, TTpb uWcov, " before others :" npb rfjc ttSTlccjc, 
"before the city." — 2. Relation of time ; as, Tzpb rf/c i](iepag, "be- 
fore the day." — 3. Relation of preference ; as, izohepov npb eiprj- 
vnq alpEirai, "he chooses war instead of peace" — Other phrases are 
npb iroXkov noieZodai, " to value highly" (literally, before much.) : udxsa- 
6ai rcpo tlvoc, " to fight for one," because he who fights for one com- 
monly places himself before him. 

II. Dative only. 

5. 'Ev (hi, poetic ; elv and elvi, Epic ; both of which, as well as kc, 
eic, are formed from hr, eve). Original meaning, in ; as, kv rate 
'AOijvaic, " in Athens :" kv To/llv, " in Rome." From this primary 
meaning we get others, such as among, with, together with, and it 
generally denotes an actual union with an object, and hence forms a 
direct contrast with kn. Thus, kv 'Apyeiocc, " among the Argives 
kv dtiavdroLc, "among immortals." — 1. Relation of time; as, kv 
tovtg) t£) xpov<f>, "during this same time:" kv cj, "while." — 2. Rela- 
tion of the means and instrument ; as, anpaiveiv kv twl, " to sig- 
nify by a certain one :" kv lepolc, " by means of sacrifices " 

6. 2vv (originally K2YN, then in the common dialect cvv, and in 
the Latin cum; %vv old Attic, but also Doric and Ionic ; Homer rare- 
ly, and only for the metre). The original meaning agrees almost 
throughout with the Latin cum, and the English with, denoting 
accompaniment, &c. 1. Relation of place; as, 6 arparnybc ovv 
role (jTpaTLuraie, " the general with the soldiers :" ovv tlvl elvai, " to be 
in company with any one." Frequently with the collateral notion of 
assistance or guidance ; as, ovv 'XBrjvy, " with the aid of Minerva:" 
cvv &e£), " with the aid of heaven" Hence to express a league with, 
standing by a person to defend him ; as, cvv role "Y/Kknai pLolJkov rj 
cvv T(p ftapBdpo) elvai, "to be on the side of the Greeks rather than on 



PREPOSITIONS, 



4G3 



that of the barbarian ;" avv nvt fidxeadai, " to fight on one's side.' 1 — 2. 
Relation of cause, referring to the means and instrument, con- 
ceived, as it were, in co-operation with, and guiding the action, but 
almost entirely confined to real, not moral actions ; as, avv fidxatg 
dig noluv Tpuuv irpddov, " twice, by means of battles, they sacked the 
city of the Trojans avv ve<p£eaai KaTiVTrreiv, " to cover over with 
clouds.'' 1 — 3. Mode and manner, considered as connected with and 
guiding the action; as, avv r&xei, " with speed: 11 avv (3ia, "with 
force, 11 &c. 

Remark. The compounds of avv almost invariably take a da- 
tive ; but where avv gives to the verb the notion that " the sub- 
ject performs it with somebody else," it is followed by a parti- 
tive genitive. Thus, awrvyxdvetv has a genitive depending on 
the simple verb, while avv refers to a dative expressed, or else 
supplied by the mind. 

III. Accusative only, 
7. Etc (kg, Ionic and old Attic, and with poets for the sake of the 
metre) is only a modified form of Lv : whence the Dorians and 
^Eolians use kg and kv in the same sense and constructions ; and kg 
is found in inscriptions with the dative. It expresses the same re- 
lations as kv, except that it has the notion of a direction, whither; 
while kv has the notion of rest, where. It is used to express the mo- 
tion of an action into an object, or up to an object, in its immediate 
neighborhood, especially to express the reaching some definite point. 
1. Relation of place ; as, Uvai etc rrjv tto^iv, 11 to go into the city :" 
VXOfied' & Orjdrjv, " we went unto Thebe. 11 So, with persons, but with 
the collateral notion of their habitation ; as, kg MeveXaov k\tieiv, " to 
go to the tent of Menelaus :" k?,6uv eg deanotvav k/Ltrjv, " having gone in 
unto my mistress. 11 — With numbers, "up to, 11 " as many as; 11 as, elg 
fivptovg, " as many as ten thousand. 11 Hence also distributively ; as, 
kg enarov, centeni : kg 6vo, bini. — 2. Relation of time, a point of 
time; as, kg qekiov Karadvvra, "until sunset. 11 Hence elg iarrepav, 
"toward evening; 11 properly, to evening, as a boundary of time. 
Duration of time, or until the end of some portion of time, "for 
as, kg d-epog, " for (he summer; 11 properly, to the end of the summer: 
elg kviavrov, "for a year, 11 i. e., until the year be past : elg varepalav, 
"for the following day .-" elg rplrnv r\p.epav, "for the third day. 11 — 3. 
Relation of cause ; as, elizelv elg dyadov, "to speak for good: 11 elg 
ti; "for what V — 4. Relation of manner, considered as the object 
which the action is endeavoring to reach ; as, kg filav jBovlevecv, 
" lo resolve one way, or unanimously elg Ka?i.6v, "fitly, 11 "opportune- 



464 



PREPOSITIONS. 



ly." — The compounds of elg mostly take the accusative, but eioip- 
Xeadai and eigievai the accusative and dative. 

IV. Genitive and Accusative. 

8. Aw. Original force, through ; properly, asunder (perhaps con- 
nected with dig) ; with the genitive, in the direction whence ; with 
the accusative, whither. 

With the Genitive. — 1. Relation of place. A motion extending 
through a space or object, and passing out of it ; and hence 
"through" "outof" "throughout" (which notion Homer expresses 
yet more forcibly by a combination of did with en or npo : as, 6Y ktc 
fieydpoio dvaxupeiv, " to retire through the house and out at the other 
side"). Thus, did T?jc QpaKng, " through Thrace :" did nedlov, 
u through the plain :" did vtjgov i&v, " going throughout the island." 
This genitive is applied figuratively, in the phrases Sid dwaioovvng 
iivai, " to pass through justice" i. e., to be just : Sid (j>66ov epxsodai^ 
" to go through fear " i. e., to be afraid, &c. — 2. Relation of time. 
The course of some period of time, properly through it and out of it ; 
and hence "through" "throughout " "in" "during;" as, di' erovg, 
" throughout the year ;" 6Y bXiyov %povov, "for a short time :" did 
irdvrog tov xpovov, " during the whole course of time." So of any 
thing occurring at stated intervals ; as, did rpirov erovg, " every third 
year" i. e. f after three years, inclusive of the one then current. 
So of intervals of space ; as, did d£fca kirdXtjeoVy " every tenth battle- 
ment." — 3. Relation of cause (direction whence) ; as, did j3aai- 
Xeov Tre^vKevat, "to be sprung from kings " i. e., through a line of 
kings: 6V iavrov, "through himself" i. e., by his own means: oY 
euov, "through me:" <5i' bfydaTifxCiv dpav- 7 "to see with the eyes." — 4. 
Relation of manner; as, did r&xovg, "with speed." — 5. Relation 
of value ; as, oY ovdevbg Troielodai, " to esteem for nothing." 

With the Accusative. — 1. Relation of place. The extension of 
any thing throughout and over a space (but never in prose) ; as, 
tyevyeiv did Kvua, " to flee over the wave." — 2. Relation of time. Ex- 
tension through time ; as, did vvura, " during the nighi." — 3. Rela- 
tion of cause; as, did tovto, "on this account:" di' 6, "wherefore:" 
viKTjaai dC 'Kdrjvrjv, " to conquer by means of Minerva." 

9. Kara. Original meaning, direction from above to below; position 
over against, contraposition to. So that, if two similar things were 
placed opposite to one another, each would be Kara to the other. 

With the Genitive. — 1. Relation of place. Motion from above to 
below, "down," "from;" as, f3r/ de naf Ovlvfinoio Kaprjvuv, "he 
went down from the summits of Olympus." The genitive expresses 



PREPOSITIONS. 



465 



the point whence the motion begins, the Kara the direction of it 
downward ; /car' aKpnc iroXtv aipieiv, " to take a city by storm ;" 
properly, from the highest point (citadel) to the lowest, i. e., alto- 
gether. Hence Kara rravroc for ndvrcoc, KaO' oXov for oAwf. So, 
also, direction toward an object ; as, Kara x^ovbg opfzara rrrjl-ai, " to 
fix one's eyes on the earth below." Hence, also, Kara xQovoc, " under 
the earth: 11 Kara. -d-aldocnc, "under the sea." So, figuratively, of 
some lower object ; like rot-evetv Kara rivoc, iraietv Kara rivoc. " to 
strike at something:" rvrcreiv Kara Koppnc, 11 to strike on the head." 
The genitive here expresses the object aimed at, the preposition 
the direction, or supposed direction, of the blow. — 2. Relation of 
cause ; as, Tieyeiv Kara rivoc, " to speak concerning any matter." The 
genitive expresses the subject of the Aoyof, the preposition the no- 
tion of its being below, subjected to the loyoc, as in the phrase /te- 
yeiv erct rivi. This is especially used in the notion of a hostile in- 
tention ; as, Tieyeiv Kara rivoe, " to speak against any one" though 
not exclusively. — So, also, in Attic adjurations and oaths ; as, cv- 
Xeofrai, bfioaat Kara tlvoc, &c, the genitive expressing that where- 
upon the force of the oath or adjuration proceeds, the preposition 
signifying the laying (real or supposed) of the hands upon it. 

With the Accusative. — 1. Relation of place. With the accusa- 
tive, Kara forms a strong contrast to ava, as far as regards the com- 
mencing-point of the movement of the action, but agrees with it in 
denoting direction to an object, and extension over it. Thus, dvd 
properly denotes from bottom to top, Kara from top to bottom. Most 
of the notions of Kara with the accusative are derived from its no- 
tion of position, "over against" " opposite to" "at." Thus, Trapye- 
vav at irapdevot Kara, rove narepac, " the virgins were present over 
against (or opposite to) their fathers." Then, Kara povv, "down 
stream." — Kara, with the accusative under this same relation of 
place, indicates an extension through space, beginning from above 
and going downward, "through" "throughout" "along;" as, KaO* 
'ETiXdda, " throughout Greece :" Kara naoav rrjv yrjv, " throughout the 
whole earth." So, Kara <ppeva, Kara -&v{j,6v, in Homer. — 2. Relation 
of time. Extension through time; duration, "during;" as, Kara 
rbv avrbv xpovov, " during this same time :" Kara rbv rcporepov tzoIc- 
uov, "during the former war." So, Kaf dpxdc, "in the beginning :" 
oi Kara riva, " the contemporaries of one."- — 3. Relation of cause ; 
as, Kara fteav t\keiv, " to have come for the purpose of beholding :" Kara 
juoipav, " according to fate :" Kara vojuovc, " according to the laws." 
The object is here supposed to be placed lengthwise, as a model 
would be, and the action directed according to it. Hence, gener- 



466 



PREPOSITIONS* 



ally, of any thing to which especial reference is made, as this is, in 
some sense, the model or rule of the action ; as, Kara ttjv rpotyrjv 
tuv naidov, " with respect to the nurture of the children :" Kara navra, 
" in every respect^" &c. So, to express some relation which the 
subject follows as its model, " in proportion to" "according to ;" as, 
Kara dvvafiiv, " in proportion (or according) to one's strength :" Kara 
jueyeOoc, " according to size" &c. — 4. With numerals, it denotes an 
indefinite quantity; as, Kara k^Kovra erv, "about sixty years." Oth- 
erwise, with numerals, it expresses distribution. — 5. Relation of 
the manner; as, /caret ra^of, "quickly:" Kara avvTvx'iav, " by chance." 
—It also denotes a division ; as, Kara tccjuae, "by villages" "after 
the manner of villages." 

10. 'Tirep (Sanscrit upari ; Latin super). Original and leading 
meaning, "above," "over." — With the genitive: L Relation of 
place ; as, KVfia vnbe vnep tol^cov Kara flrjaerai, " the billow shall de- 
scend over the sides of the ship :" 6 t/?.loc vnep TjjiCov kol t&v areydv 
TropevETai, " the sun moves above us and our dwellings :" oi vnep kiyvn- 
rov ocKovfievoL, "they who dwell above (i. e., beyond) ~Egypt :" vnep 
&a?Ao(77jc olkelv, " to dwell on the sea" said of a situation above the 
sea. — 2. Relation of cause. Connected with it3 local force in the 
notion of defending, helping, &c. ; i. e., to stand over, and defend or 
help a person ; as, /ndxsadai virep rfjc narpldoc, " to fight for one's 
country" standing over it, as it were : virep tt}c 'E2.ka.doc. davelv, " to 
die for Greece" Substitution for, one thing being placed, as it were, 
over another, and thus substituted for it ; as, vnep tov avrfig dvSpdc 
aizodavelv, " to die instead of her own husband" So, in the New Tes- 
tament, XpLorbe vrcep Tip&v dnEdave, "Christ died in our stead." It de- 
notes, also, some mental cause of action, where vtto with the geni- 
tive is more usual ; as, virep ttevOovc, " through sorrow." And also, 
generally, to express a special reference to something, " about" for 
nepi with the genitive. 

With the accusative, motion above, over, beyond an object, 
whether in space, time, size, or number ; as, (iltctelv vnep tov 66/uov r 
'* to fling over the house:" vrcep 'E?,Ar/(j7rovTov ockeiv, "to dwell beyond 
the Hellespont " i. e., across : vnep Svvauiv, " beyond one's power ■," &c. 
The compounds of vnip take a genitive when the notion of superior- 
ity is the prominent one in the compound verb ; as, vnepfypoveZv : 
otherwise it does not materially alter the sense of the simple verb. 

V. Dative and Accusative. 

11. 'Avd. Original meaning, "on," "up," "upon." This prepo- 
sition is commonly ranked among those which govern an accusative 



PREPOSITIONS. 



467 



only. It is found, however, sometimes, among the Epic and lyric 
writers, and in the choral songs of the tragedians, joined with a da- 
tive ; as, ava GKrjrcTpu, " on the top of a sceptre :" ava Yapydpu aKpu, 
" on the summit of Gargarus" &c. — With the accusative it is exact- 
ly opposed to Kara with the same case, the one signifying a motion 
from above to below, the other from below to above. 1. Relation 
of p:.ace. Direction toward some higher object ; as, ava Kiova, " up 
a column." But this is confined mostly to the course of a river ; as, 
ava j)6ov nhetv, 11 to sail up stream" (whereas koto, poov is "down 
stream"). To express an extension of any thing, from bottom to 
top, " throughout ," with verbs of rest as well as motion ; as, ava 
vtira deovoai, " running throughout the back :" ava orofia ex eLV > <k to 
have continually in the mouth" (as it were, to cast down and up in 
one's mouth). — 2. Relation of time. Extension in time. Dura- 
tion, " throughout ;" as, ava vvktcl, " throughout the night :" ava tov 
Tcohefiov tovtov, " throughout this same war ." 3. Relation of cause, 
the action being conceived of as moving along in conformity to some 
higher object ; as, ava Kpdroc, " with all one's might," i. e., at the top 
of one's speed : ava [lepoc, " in turn" Hence arises its distributive 
force ; as, ava irav stoc, " yearly ;" ava Tcevre Trapacrdyyae tt)c r/fiepag, 
u Jive par asangs a day." — Lastly, in definitions of number, "about;" 
as, ava dta/coota orddta, " about two hundred stadia." 

Remark. The compounds with ava are joined with the accu- 
sative or genitive, according to the verbal notion of the com- 
pound, as discernible in the elements thereof, or in the con- 
text ; as, dvaBaiveiv to opoc, 11 to climb the mountain :" but in 
Homer, like k-Kibaivetv (gen partitive): 6c eiiruv ava vnbc e6tjv 
(Od., ix , 177) : av d' dpa TrjTie ftaxoc vnbc (3atve, " Telemachus 
thereupon stepped up on board the ship :" ava expressing the 
stepping up the side of the ship ; and the genitive being used 
because the spot where Telemachus had reached the deck is 
considered as part of the ship. 

VI. Genitive , Dative, and Accusative. 

12. 'A/Mpi. (JA/ittC : Sanscrit api ; Latin apud. In composition, 
amp, amb, am, an,) The prepositions d^tyi and nepi express the 
same position, "about," 11 around," ufifyi on two sides only, izepi all 
around. They agree, also, in their usage, except that d\i§l is most- 
ly confined to the Ionic dialect and poetry, whereas nepl is used in 
all the dialects, and, therefore, has acquired a greater variety of 
meanings, and more general usage. 

'kfMpi, with the genitive. — 1. Relation of place (post-Homeric). 



468 



PREPOSITIONS. 



Removal of something surrounded from the thing surrounding it ; 
the genitive signifying the removal, and dfMpi the relative position 
of the thing ; as, dju(j)l nopcpvpeuv 7ren?icov %L<bn onaoavTeg (Eurip., 
Or est., 1470), " having draion their swords from the purple garments 
that enveloped them." Round any thing in rest ; as, tolgl u/Kpl rav- 
tvc oUeovgl rfjc izoliog {Herod., viii., 104), "to those dwelling around 
this city." — 2. Relation of cause. The thing on which a person 
is physically or morally employed is considered as the cause of such 
employment, and, therefore, is in the genitive, while dju<f)l defines the 
relation more clearly by adding the local notion of " about ;" as, /ud- 
XeaQai d[i<pL tivoc, " to fight for one" (literally, " round one") : aju(f)l 
tyiko-nToc deidetv, " to sing about love" i. e., to linger, as it were, in 
song around love. 

With the Dative. — L Relation of place. Rest round, at, near ; 
as, Teha/iov dfi(j)l gt7]Qeggiv, " the strap around the breast :" OTrjoai 
rpcTToda izvpt, "to place a tripod on the fire" i. e., so that it stood 
thereon (rest), and then to express total envelopment : djj.<fi nlddotg 
e&Gdat, " to sit among twigs," i. e., surrounded by them. So, ajLupl 
Ne/^ea, "at the Nemcan games." So, of time, d/u(f> > ivl dltcD, "in one 
day." (Find., 01., xiii., 37.)— 2. Relation of cause. The cause or 
object, as with the genitive, with this difference, however, that the 
dative expresses the cause by its position ; in other words, there is 
the notion of an actual existence of the cause in some particular 
place ; as, d/u(j>l veuve /LtdxzGOai, " to fight about a dead body :" duty! 
yvvaiKi dTiyea iraGx^tv, " to suffer woes on account of a woman :" dfi(pl 
(podo), " through fear," as it were encircled by fear. 

With the Accusative. — 1. Relation of place. Extension round 
any thing ; as, duyl rrjv nohiv, "around the city." Thence an action 
in the interior (within the circle) of any thing ; as, d/n^i re ugtv ep- 
So/Ltev ipd -freoLGiv (II., xi., 706), "we offer sacrifices to the gods around 
the interior of the city." So, also, of those environing any one ; as, 
oi dfi(j)L Tiva, a person and those around him, i. e., his followers. 
This last-mentioned idiom, however, is also employed, by a peculiar 
Attic usage, to designate a person ; less, however, as an individual 
than as the specimen of a class. Later authorities use it for the 
mere individual. — 2. Relation of time. An indefinite time ; as, 
dfjLtyl rbv xzwuva, " about winter :" dfi(j)l fiel?inv, " about afternoon." 
Thence an indefinite number ; as, dficpl rove juvptovg, " about ten 
thousand." — 3. Relation of cause. A mental lingering round, em- 
ployment, pains about something ; d^tyl deenvov lx tlv -> " 1° 06 busied 
about supper :" djutyi ri elvat, " to be employed about any thing." 
Thence of any thing which extends over and about, or relates to 



PREPOSITIONS. 



469 



something else ; as, rd dfityl rbv iroke\iov, " the things relating to the 
war." 

13. Uepi (^Eolic irip ; Sanscrit pari; Latin per; Gothic fair). 
Original meaning, round, in a circle. — With the genitive. 1. Rela- 
tion of place. The position of one thing around, encircling another 
(only in poetry, and but seldom) ; as, rbv fiev eycjv kadioaa irepl rpo« 
irioc peBaiora (Od., v., 130), "him I saved while moving along and en- 
circling the keel (with his legs)." — 2. Relation of cause : 11 for, 
about, for the sake of;" as, diroOavelv irepl tt}c irarpidoc, "to die for 
one's country r" Xeyeiv irepl rivoq, " to speak about any thing eirtpe- 
"kelodai irepi rivoc, " to exercise care about one :" irepl eptdog fidxeadat, 
" t° fight from strife :" irepl bp-yfjc, "from anger" (prce ira). The re- 
lation of value, worth, estimation, superiority ; as, irepl uXhuv, 
" above others irepl iroT^ov iroieladai, " to esteem highly :" irepl ov~ 
devbc iroieicdat., " to regard as of no value." The genitive signifies 
the antecedent notion of the value, as it is good Greek to say iro%~ 
Tiov iroielcdai, but irepi represents the relation more visibly as arising 
from an actual circle of objects, as is clearly seen in the Homeric 
irepl rrdvruv, irepl aXkuv. 

With the Dative. — 1. Relation of place. A position in rest in a 
circle, environs, neighborhood (like dp.(pi), but generally with the 
collateral notion of close connection ; as, dupatj irepl role arepvoL-c f 
" a corselet around the breast :" pdpvavro irepl ^Katyai irvXgm, " they 
fought around the Scaan gate." — 2. Relation of cause. Like d/uQi, 
with the dative ; as, dedievat irepi rivi, " to fear about one :" irepl xdp- 
pari, " through joy ," as if surrounded by it : irepl $66g), "through fear." 

With the Accusative. — 1. Relation of place. Motion into the cir- 
cle, the vicinity of it ; as, irepl Qpevag rfkv& iuq, "round his mind 
came the call." Frequently with verbs of rest, to denote an exten- 
sion through space, "round," "at," "through;" as, korufievoi irepl 
rolxov, " standing around the wall :" &kovv QoiviKeg irepl irdoav rr/v 
LiKeXlav, "Phoenicians dwelt throughout the whole of Sicily, round 
about :" irepl klyvirrov, "in and round Egypt." Hence ol irepi riva, 
"those who are about one:" ol irepl U?<,dra)va, "Plato's scholars." 
(Compare dfupi.) — 2. Relation of time (post-Homeric). An indefi- 
nite period, like dp,(j>i; as, irepl rovrove rove xpovovc, " about these 
same times." So, an indefinite number ; as, irepl fivpiovg orparuorac, 
"about ten thousand soldiers." — 3. Relation of cause; "about" 
" with respect to ;" as, dp,e7i(bc l^etv irepi riva, " to be negligent with 
respect to one :" outypovelv irepl rovg deovg, " to be sound in one's belief 
with respect to the gods :" al irepl rb crti/ua ijdovai, " the pleasures relar 
ting to the body ;" rd irepl rqv dperrjv, "the essence of virtue." 

R R 



470 



PREPOSITIONS. 



Remark. In the philosophical works of Aristotle, 7repl signi- 
fies " to be engaged in or upon" and takes its definite sense from 
the word on which it depends. So, apery eon irepl ndd-n nal 
TtpaZete, i. e., ** the subject matter of virtue" &c. : uperri kori nepl 
rjdovac nal "hvnac, 44 virtue is the regulation of pleasure and pain" 
14. 'Eni (Sanscrit abhi). Original force upon, on, whence almost 
all the various meanings may be derived. It originally expresses 
the position of one thing on another, the latter being, as it were, the 
support or foundation of the former, that whereon it rests. Thence, 
as an action is conceived to rest upon the motive or cause, &c, for 
which it is done (the motive being, as it were, the foundation of the 
action), that whereon it rests expresses the motive, cause, &c. (like 
on in old English) ; and as this motive implies different relations 
with different verbal notions, M has a corresponding variety of 
meanings. 

With the Genitive. — 1. Relation of place. Being on or at a thing. 
The genitive expresses an antecedent condition of the action, and 
Eire defines the peculiar position ; as, rd dx^rj 0L P ev dvdpec km ruv 
Ke(f>a?itjv tyopeovatv, ai 6e yvvaiKec km rtiv tifitov, " the men carry their 
burdens upon their heads, the women upon their shoulders." A motion 
toward a place or thing. The genitive represents the place as some- 
thing aimed at, the desire antecedent to the notion ; as, nheiv km 
1>ajjLov, " to sail for Samos :" km "Zapdsov yevyeiv, 44 to flee to Sardis." 
— 2. Relation of time. The time when any thing happens or ex- 
ists, the time being considered as a space or spot whereon the ac- 
tion rests ; as, en' elprjvnc, " in the season of peace :" km rcov klvSvvcjv, 
" in the moment of danger." We often find the genitive with a present 
participle expressing an action with which the sentence is coeval,, 
whence km is said to express duration of time ; as, km Kvpov pavt- 
TiEvovroc, "during the reign of Cyrus. 11 So, also, k<p Tjfi&v, "in our 
time." — 3. Relation of cause. With verbs of saying, swearing, 
affirming before some one ; as, teyeiv km diKacruv, "to speak before 
judges :" kmjfioaavTo km rCbv crparnyuv, " they took the oath before the 
generals :" the judges, generals, &c, being considered by the Greeks 
as that whence the action proceeded, arising and having its force 
from their authority, the antecedent cause of the action ; while km 
still farther defines the relation by representing it as resting upon 
these persons ; as, km npognoTiov /iidc olkeiv, " with (as it were de- 
pending on) one servant maid." — The occasion, the author of any 
thing ; as, KaTietaBat km rivoc, " to be named after some one or some- 
thing" whereon, as it were, the name rests. — A cause. The geni- 
tive expresses that whence the action springs, and km represents 



PREPOSITIONS. 



471 



the action as resting on the object ; as, \6yeiv km rivoc, " to speak 
concerning something." — Conformity to, after the fashion, in the case 
of, with verbs of examining, deciding, saying, showing, &c. The gen- 
itive signifies the antecedent condition, whence the action springs ; 
km represents this condition as that whereon the action rests ; as, 
KpLvetv em rtvoc, " to judge according to any thing." — Dependence on, 
em representing a thing as resting on something else ; as, k<p eavrov, 
" by one's self;" properly, resting or depending on one's self. Hence 
apparently the phrase, efi hoc, " one deep ;" km rpi&v, " three deep" 
&c., said of men drawn up in order of battle. Hence, also, km is 
used to express a steady continuance on a thing ; as, uv ical vfielc km 
Trjc Toiavrnc k6e?^anTe yeveodai yvco/inc, " in case you even feel in- 
clined to adhere firmly to such an opinion as this." {Demosth., p. 42, 
6.) — The object conceived as the cause ; as, kir, ov kraxdn/uev, " over 
which we were placed." Hence ol km tCjv 7rpayfidTov, " those placed 
over affairs," or intrusted with the management of them. 

With the Dative. — I. Relation of place: "upon" "at" "by;" 
as, km role dopaai fioiae efyov xpvcrac, " they had golden pomegranates 
upon their spears :" olneiv km ry -frahaTTn, " to dwell near the sea." 
Hence, ol km rale firjxavalg, " those stationed at the engines." So, 
Tieyeiv km rivt, " to speak a panegyric on one," who is conceived to 
lie at the speaker's feet. — 2. Relation of cause. The object or aim 
of an action, considered as the motive or foundation thereof, and 
generally with a hostile force, with a view to the harm of ; frequently 
found in Homer and other poets, and often in Ionic prose ; as, p,a6<jv 
rd Tzoievfieva £7r' etdvrC) {Herod., i., 61), "having ascertained the things 
that were getting done for his own harm." So, simply, with a view 
to, km dnlrjGet fyavetdGi {Herod., i., 41), "may present themselves with 
a view to injure you." — The condition, aim, intention, destination ; 
as, em TovT(f), "on this condition:" £7r' ovdevt, "on no condition." — 
The ground of any mental affection ; as, yelav km tlvl, " to laugh 
on account of any thing." — The means and instrument conceived as 
the foundation of the action; as, km ipoyoiGi, "with censures." — 
Price, condition, reward, with a view to ; as, km dupotc, "for gifts" 
&c. 

With the Accusative. — 1. Relation of place. The object in 
space — of motion toward a place ; as, ava6alvecv k<f>' cmrov, " to 
mount upon a horse :" km tipovov, " unto a throne." — An extension 
in space over an object ; as, tz^fIv km olvoira novrov, " to sail upon 
the dark-hucd sea tV fovea nelro nreXedpa, " he lay extended over nine 
plcthra." Hence the adverbial expressions (be km to ttoIv, "for the 
most part:" km Asgia^ " on the right :" kit' dpiarepd, " on the left." — 



472 



PREPOSITIONS. 



2. Relation of time : "until" "during;" as, en' Tj(b, "until morn* 
ing :" km no7J.de rjuepac, "during many days:" enl xpovov, "for a 
time." — 3. With cardinal numbers, like the genitive, said of men 
drawn up in order of battle ; as, en' danidac nkvre Kal elkogw, "Jive' 
and-twenty men deep or in file." And, also, " up to" a certain num- 
ber, i. e., "nearly," "about;" as, enl TptaKooia, "about three hun- 
dred." — 4. Relation of cause. The aim or intent ; as, km dr/pav 
ievcu, " to go on a hunt." In a hostile sense (against) ; as, Grparev" 
eadat km UepGac, "to march against (i. e., upon) the Persians." Mode 
and manner ; as, km GTad/unv, " by rule :" en' lea, " in the same way." 
Generally, to express particular reference to any thing ; as, to en* 
efie, "as far as relates to me." 

15. Merd (yEolic neda), " with" connected with [icgoc, and the 
radical signification appearing to be " in the middle." 

With the Genitive.- — 1. Relation of place. Connection and com- 
munity with, so that one thing is so intimately connected with an- 
other, that they are affected by the same action as one and the same 
thing ; as, \ierh venptiv KelGOfiat, " I will lay me down with the dead :" 
nadrjodai fierd tuv dXXuv, "to sit with the rest." Hence an active 
connection, to aid a person ; as, perd tlvoc fidxeodai, " to fight (in 
company) with a person :" elvai uerd tlvoc, " to side with one." — 2. Re- 
lation of cause. Mode and manner, the means being considered 
as accompaniments ; as, uerd napprjaiac he-yew, " to speak with free- 
dom :" vjuv oi npoyovoi tovto to yepag kKTrjaavTO Kal KareXinov uerd 
iroXktiv Kal /ueyaAcjv kwSvvuv, " your forefathers acquired and left you 
this high privilege with many and great dangers." — In conformity 
with ; as, fierd tcjv vo/ucdv, "in conformity with the laws:" fieTa tov 
Xoyov, " in accordance with reason." 

With the Dative. — Only poetic, and especially Epic. — To express 
a local union, where, in prose, ovv and kv are used. In general it is 
joined with the plural, or the singular of collective nouns, or with 
persons or things considered as such, or the parts of animate things ; 
as, per' ddav&TOLC, " among the immortals," i. e., in the midst of: fieTa 
(ppEGtv, "in the mind:" /uerd Kvuaoc, "amid the waves."— Society, 
community ; as, fierd nvoirjc dvejuoio, " together with the blasts of the 
wind." 

With the Accusative. — 1. Relation of place. A motion, "into 
the midst of" "among;" as, iKeadat fierd Tptiac Kal Wxaiovg, "to 
come into the midst of the Trojans and the Greeks." — Generally, direc- 
tion or striving after, connection or union, whether friendly or hos- 
tile, with a person or thing ; as, pfjvat fierd NeGTopa, " to go unto 
Nestor;" properly, into union with, to join him: pjj de per' 'Uo- 



PREPOSITIONS. 



473 



fievija, " and he went after Idomeneus," i. e., to join him. Thence, 
generally, of succession in space, "behind," "after;" as, ugeI pera 
KTikov egtzeto piffka, " even as the sheep are wont to follow behind the 
ram" Thence the same notion is applied to the relations of value, 
rank, &c, "after" "next to" especially with superlatives; as, /cdA- 
"Xlgtoc /Liera. H^siuva, " the handsomest after Achilles." — A space be- 
tween two objects, as the phrase uerd x El P a S ^X eLV i " t0 have in hand" 
i. e., between the hands. — 2. Relation of time. Succession in 
time, analogous to succession in space ; as, fiera ravra, " after this" 
The substantive in the accusative is often joined with the participle ; 
as, fiera l>6\o)va oIx6(jlevov, " after Solon was gone." Again, p,ed' 
Tjfizpav, "by day;" properly, "after day-rise." — 3. Relation of cause. 
The object ; as, ttAeIv /lleto, ^aA/cdv, "to sail after copper." — Accord- 
ance with ; according to a moral following after any thing ; as, vbov 
fjLETCL gov nal Ejudv nfjp, " according to your and my heart's desire." — 
The compounds of //era, which denote "change," generally take a 
genitive of the old, an accusative of the new state or position ; as, 
Eurip., Med., ovxl Gvyysvrj fiEdopjuiGaadai r/jcd' sxovaa GVfifyopuc. 

16. Ilapa. (Epic irapal : Sanscrit para; Litthuanian pas, par-; 
Gothic and German fra, fram.) Original meaning, " by the side of." 
Hence, as every thing has four sides, the relations in which the ob- 
ject is viewed by the speaker will vary according to the position by 
one or other of these sides, and according to the power of the cases 
with which it is joined. 

c. 



A. 

Remark. The letters refer to these lines to denote the posi- 
tion iris which the object is supposed to stand. 
With the Genitive. — 1. Relation of place. (A.) In point of; and 
as the genitive, with verbs of motion, signifies the point whence 
the motion begins, it is used in the relations of space, to define more 
clearly this point, which might have been denoted by the genitive : 
coming from the side of, motion from; as, eWeiv napd nvog, "to come 
from one," like the French de chez quelqu'un: (f>dayavov hpvGaoQai 
napa finpov, " to draw the sword from one's thigh." So, always, of an 
embassy, napd, not irpog, is employed ; as, TTEiKpOrjvaL napa rivoq, " io 
be sent by one:" irpioSeig irapd rivoq, "ambassadors from one"— 2. 

E r 2 



474 



PREPOSITIONS. 



Relation of cause. The person or thing whence knowledge or 
hearing, &c, proceeds ; as, fiavOdveiv napd tlvoc, "to learn from one:" 
tiKovetv napd rivog, " to hear from one." So, nap' eavrov, "from one's 
self" i. e., of one's own accord. — With passive and intransitive verbs 
(especially in late prose), for vno, when the energy is supposed to 
proceed immediately from (as it were the side of) any one — by his 
means ; as, olfiai yap fie napd gov Gotyiaq nTinpudrjaeodaL, "for I think 
that I will be filled with wisdom from thee." — Hence with verbs of 
giving; as, Trap' eavrov, "from one's own resources." — " From," of any 
feeling which is supposed to proceed from some one to its object; 
as, if napd rivoc evvoia, "good-will from some one toward some one." 

With the Dative. — (A.) 1. Relation of place. A point in front 
of, without motion ; as, egttj napd r<p fiaoikeZ, " he stood in the king's 
■presence" Thence, 2. Relation of cause. To express standing 
before a person as a judge, and submitting to his decision or sen- 
tence ; as, napd AapeiG) tcpLrfj, " with Darius for judge :" nap' hfioi, 
" in my own opinion" (meo judicio). 

With the Accusative (A., B., C). — 1. Relation of place. (A.) In 
front of and with verbs of motion defining more clearly the point 
whither the motion tends, " to the side of," which might have been 
denoted by the simple accusative. In the sense of " to" it is only 
used with persons, or sometimes things considered as persons ; as, 
a city, &c. (Except in Pindar (0/., ii., 70), napd rvpGiv.) Thus, 
dniKeadai napd KpoiGov, " to come unto Crozsus :" fjyayov napd Kvpov, 
"they conducted to Cyrus." — (B.) Motion by the side of parallel to, 
" along ;" as, napd top norafiov, " by the side of the river" or 44 along 
the river." — (B.) An extension in space (without motion), alongside 
of an object, parallel to ; as, oi fiev Kotfirjaavro napd npvfiv^Gia vtjqc, 
" they lay down to rest beside the stern-fasts of their ship." — (C.) On 
the other side of "beyond;" as, napd rbv norafiov, "on the other side 
of the river." Hence, also, the idea of transgression. We have 
here, also, many figurative expressions ; as, napd fiolpav, " beyond 
fate" i. e., transgressing, contrary to : napd doi-av, " contrary to 
opinion :" napd to StKaiov, " contrary to justice." — 2. Relation of 
time. (B.) Extension in time : " during ;" as, " nap' rjfiepav, " during 
the day :" napd rrjv noatv, " amid drinking," i. e., inter potandum. 
So of critical moments during which any thing happened ; as, nap' 
avrbv top kIvSvvov, "during the danger itself." — 3. Causal (B.) Pos- 
session, by the side of any one ; as, nvvddveade ri]v vvv nap' hue tov- 
aav Svvafiiv, " ye ask respecting the power at present with me," i. e. ; 
penes me. — According with, agreeing with, paraHel to, according to, 
with verbs of trying, examining, estimating, &c. ; as, napd rbv \6yov. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



475 



"according to the account." — " Besides," springing up as the leaves 
from the stalk ; as, irapa ravra, "besides these things." — Used gen- 
erally in comparisons ; as, Trap' bXtyov iroieloBat, " to esteem of lit- 
tle value:" irapa iro?iV afietvuv, "by far better:" irapa iro"kv irepcycy- 
veodai, u to conquer by a great deal :" irapd fiiKpbv fadev airodavelv, 
" he came within a little of (i. e., off) dying." — Proportion, according 
to ; as, irapd rdc rpiuKovra [ivptddac diduoLV Vjilv fivptovc fiedc/uvovc, 
"gives you on every 300,000 bushels 10,000." (Demosth., p. 467.) 
Often with the collateral notion of superiority ; as, irapa rd dXka 
(wa, uoirep -&eol, ol uvdpoiroi /3corevovcn, " men live like gods in com- 
parison with (i. e., beyond) other animals." Hence of exchange ; as, 
rjfiepa nap' Tj/uepav, " day by day" (allernis diebus) : ir?inyy irapa irTirj- 
yrjv, " blow upon blow." — Besides, within, except; as, irapa ev irdXatcfia 
edpafze vikuv 'OTiv/uiridda, i. e., "except one," "within one." (Herod., 
ix., 33.) 

17. Ilpdf (or 7roTL, and originally irporl; both forms, also, Epic : 
Sanscrit prati) is derived from irpo, and has the same general mean- 
ing, before ; but it is joined with all three cases, and, with the gen- 
itive, expresses a far greater variety of causal relations than irpo. 
While irapa expresses the relation of position on all four sides, irpoc 
expresses only one, namely, in front of. 

With the Genitive. — 1. Relation of place. Before, in front of, 
this side of, coming from ; the genitive expresses the point whence 
the motion is supposed to begin, and is farther defined by the prepo- 
sition, especially of the position of any spot ; as, oUsovai irpoc vorov 
dvefiov, "they dwell toward the south:" irpoc /Sopeov dve/iov, "toward 
the north." So, in Latin, ab oriente for versus orientem. The same 
position may be expressed by the accusative, a motion toward being 
supposed (as in Latin also, versus or ad mentem). With the genitive 
it is from there (toward here) ; with the accusative, (from here) toward 
there; as, edvoe oUovfievov irpoc ts tcai tj^lov avaroTiae, "a nation 
dwelling toward both the east and the rising of the sun." Sometimes 
we rind both constructions together, as in Herod., ii., 121. — 2. Rela- 
tion of cause. The cause, occasion, author, generally any agent, 
the action being considered to arise by virtue of the presence of a 
person, or a thing considered as a person. — Of descent ; as, ol irpoc 
atuarog, " blood relations :" irpoc irarpoc, irpoc finrpoc, "from the fa- 
ther's side," "from the mother's side." — Of properties which belong 
to any one, or of the possessor of any thing, whence the action is 
supposed to arise ; as, irpoc yvvaitcoc Ian, "it is the property of a fe- 
male," i. e., it arises from the nature of a woman : irpoc diunc eotlv, 
" it is right :" irpoc Ajoc eial %evoI re irruxoi re. " both strangers and 



476 



PREPOSITIONS. 



the poor belong to Jove" i. e., proceed from, are under his protec- 
tion, are, as it were, his children : irpbc rfiv exovtcjv vdfiog, " a law 
for the rich." — In oaths and supplications; as, rrpbg -fretiv, "by the 
gods ;" properly, " before the gods" but the genitive expresses that 
the oath derives its power from the gods. — The cause, defining the 
relation of the simple genitive ; as, (pvTianal tiariaraaav irpbg kldio- 
iru)v, irpbc 'Xpafjitdv, &c, "guards were stationed against the Ethio- 
pians, against the Arabians," &c. ; properly, " before the ^Ethiopians," 
&c. ; but the genitive denotes them as the cause of the guard, as in 
Latin, munimenta ab hoste. 

With the Dative. — To express a motionless position in front of an 
object ; as, irpbc tolc fcplraic, " before the judges." So, of employ- 
ment ; as, dvat, ylyvEGdai, irpbg irpayjuaGi : and thereon, in addition 
to; as, irpbg Tovroir, "in addition to these things," "besides these 
things." 

With the Accusative. — L Relation of place. A motion to the 
front of an object. Frequently in a hostile sense ; as, [xaxeadai irpog 
nva, "to fight against one-" properly, "to go to his front and fight 
him" Then with all verbs of speaking and saying, as we say, "he 
spoke before me," that is, " to me :" Tieyeiv irpog nva, " to speak unto 
one" So, Tioyi&cdai irpbc eavrov, "to commune with one's self." — 2. 
Relation of time. An indefinite point of time ; as, irpbg rjfiepav, 
" toward daybreak." (Xen., Anab., iv., 5, 21.) So, also, of number : 
irpbc eKarov, "toward a hundred," i. c., about a hundred. — 3. Rela- 
tion of cause. The object ; as, evpn/neva irpbg QvXaKTjv nal gutt)- 
plav, " things devised for a guard and means of safety." — Accordance 
with, according to, in consequence of, after, on ; as, irpbc ttjv oiptv 
ravrnv tov ydfiov eGirevaa, " I hastened your marriage on account of 
this same vision :" irpbg ravra, " on this account ;" properly, " conform- 
ably to this" Hence it denotes a comparison, considered as placing 
one thing in opposition to another, like contra in Latin. Mostly with 
collateral idea of superiority ; as, 'AOnvaioc irpbc navrac rove aXhovg 
(GVfifiuxovg) Trapexbjuevot vrjac byduKovra nal efcarov, " the Athenians 
furnishing a hundred and eighty vessels, equal to all the other members 
of the league." {Herod., viii., 44.) — Generally, to express a reference ; 
as, gkoitelv irpog ti, " to consider with reference to any thing :" 6ia<pE- 
peiv irpbc, uperyv, " to differ vjith respect to virtue." 

18. 'Tiro (poetic viral ; Sanscrit upa ; Latin sub; Gothic uf\ 
Original meaning, under. — With the Genitive. 1. Relation of place. 
A motion from under any thing, from below, from beneath, out of 
(as seen more apparently in the compound vttek with the genitive) ; 
as, Kprjvrj peei virb Gireiovc, "a fountain flows from under a grotto:" 



PREPOSITIONS. 



477 



VtKpbv vtt* klavrog cpveiv, " to drag away a corpse from under the 
hands of Ajax :" vtto x^ovoc, "from under the earth?'' The preposi- 
tion here is nearly adverbial ; it belongs rather to an accompanying 
verb t)ks, in the passage whence this is taken (Hesiod, Theog., 669), 
than to the substantive. — A quiet resting under an object ; as, vtto 
y?jc oinetv, " to dwell under the earth.'''' — 2. Relation of cause. The 
author of an action, with passive and intransitive verbs, mostly the 
latter, used as passive ; as, KTeivecrdac vtto tlvoc, " to be slain by one:" 
anodavelv vivo tlvoc, " to die by the hands of one." — The cause, occa- 
sion, actuating influence; as, vtto rrjg Trapeovanc cvfttyopfjc, "under 
the influence of the existing calamity" {Herod., i., 85), the calamity be- 
ing, as it were, upon him, and he under its pressure : viz' avaynrjc, 
"through necessity." — Of a mental cause; as, vtto deove, "through 
fear." — A mere intermediate cause, means, or instrument ; as it 
were a cause, under the guidance, accompaniment, co-operation of 
which, any thing happens ; in some of which cases we use the word 
under ; as, vtto Zetyvpoio Icoijg epxeaOat, " to go under the roaring of the 
western blast :" upvaaov vtto juaariyov, " they dug under lashes :" vtto 
KrjpvKoc TTponyopevs, "he proclaimed by means of a herald." Espe- 
cially of the accompaniment of musical instruments ; as, vif avXov 
%opev£iv, "to dance to the music of the pipe:" vtto (pop/uiyycjVj "to the 
notes of harps :" vtto tv/ittcivcov, " to the music of timbrels." 

With the Dative. — 1. Relation of place. Position, without mo- 
tion, under any thing ; as, virb yy elvai, " to be under the earth :" vtto 
T/zwAcj, "at the foot of Mount Tmolus." — 2. Relation of cause. 
The author ; as with the genitive ; especially poetic ; as, da[i7jvat 
vtto tlvl, " to be subdued by one." So Plato, nsTraidev/ievoc vtto tivi, 
"instructed by some one." — The intermediate cause, &c, as the geni- 
tive, but rather poetic ; as, virb papSiTu xopsvetv, " to dance to the 
music of the lyre" &c— Subordination ; as, ttolelv tl vtto tlvl, "to 
subdue under some one:" tt]v *YiXka8a vtt' eovrti TtoiriGaoQai, "to re- 
duce Greece under his sway." 

With the Accusative. — 1. Relation of place. Motion or direction 
under ; as, epx^adai vtto yaiav, " to go under the earth :" t/Wov vtt' 
*I/Uov, "they came under the walls of Troy." — 2. Relation of time. 
An approximation to a point of time, as sub in Latin ; thus, vtto 
vvKTa y " tovmrd night" sub noctem : vtto rbv vrjbv KaraKaevra, " at the 
time when the temple was burned." So, of an indefinite measure in 
the Attic phrase ; as, vtto tl, " in some measure :" ravf egtlv vtto tl 
aTOTTa, "this is in some measure wonderful." During; as, vtto ttjv 
vvktci, " during the night." — 3. Relation of cause. Subordination ; 
as, vtto x?tpa hadelv, &c. 



478 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS* 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

1. In Horner, the prepositions are used both in their primary force 
as local adverbs, and in their secondary force as prepositions ; that 
is, as defining the local, and afterward the causal relations of the 
cases. They are also used adverbially in Ionic Greek, as, for ex- 
ample, in Herodotus. Far less frequently so, however, in Attic. 

2. As prepositions are merely local adverbs, the older dialects, 
which commonly use them as such, would naturally place the prepo- 
sition apart from the verb, in many cases where the Attics at a later 
day always used the compound ; and even where Homer uses the 
compound in the same sense as the simple verb, we are not to sup- 
pose an actual tmesis wherever we find the verb and the preposition 
used instead of the compound ; for Homer would employ both the 
old forms of speech, and those which, in his time recently introduced, 
w r ere in later periods of the language universally adopted. 

3. Tmesis can not be properly spoken of, till, in the later dialects, 
especially the Attic, the preposition coalesced so closely with the 
verb, that the new word took its place in the language as such. It is 
found pretty frequently in Herodotus, more rarely in the Attic chorus, 
and still more rarely in the dialogue, and only where a particle is 
the dividing word, so that the connection between the two parts, or 
the unity of the compound notion, is not utterly destroyed. In Attic 
prose, tmesis, except in one or two singular instances, is not found. 

4. Prepositions, are often joined with local adverbs, whieh, how- 
ever, in such composition assume a sort of substantival force. 
Many of these compounds are also written as one verb, so closely 
are they united. This species of composition seems to have been 
more frequently used from the time of Herodotus than before him. 
So, vttokcltg), virepdvo, efiirpoadev (inante, contrary to exante), kcitq- 
Tucdev, k^oKicu, elaoiriau, or koomou, &c. Such prepositions com- 
pounded with £Ti take their cases ; as, izpocerL tovtg), k^eri irarpiov. 
And even with a particle between them; as, evyeravdl, kvfzevTev- 
devt, in comedy. 

5. Prepositions with datives are sometimes joined to verbs of mo- 
tion, whither, and with the accusative to verbs of rest, especially in 
the Homeric dialect ; this is called the pregnant construction. In 
the former case, the speaker regards the state of rest following on 
the completed motion ; in the latter, the motion which precedes, and 
is implied in, the state of rest ; so that the two parts, which in other 
languages require two verbs to express them, are in Greek signified 
by one. Thus, h 6* kv yovvaai Tr'nrre Aiuvng 6V 'AQpodiTrj (Horn., 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREEK VERB. 479 



V., 370), "she, the divine Aphrodite, fell and lay in the lap of Dione 
pd'/Ckeiv kv KovinoL {Horn.), " to fling in the dust, there to remain ;" avn- 
fildac fiev npCora nepl Kv^/ir/aiv IOvkev (11., iiL, 330), "first he placed the 
greaves on the legs so that they fitted firmly on them ;" ievat napd Tig- 
cacpepvei, m to go to and stay with Tissaphernes" (Xen., Anab., ii., 5, 
27), &c. : irapelvai kg Hdpdic, " to go to Sardis and be present there j?" 
(Herod., vi., 1). 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREEK VERB. 

Force of the Tenses. 

1. The time in which an action can take place is either 
present, past, or future. There are thus in Greek, as in 
every language, three principal tenses, the present (6 eveo- 
tgjc), the preterit, and the future (6 fieXXuv) . 

2. Of the present there is only one simple form in Greek, 
but for the preterit there are more than in any other lan- 
guage. 

3. An action, for instance, is represented as either in it- 
self and absolutely past, or as relatively past in respect to 
another time expressed or conceived. The aorist serves 
to denote the time entirely past ; the imperfect, the perfect, 
and the 'pluperfect, the relative time. 

4. The imperfect (6 7raparaTLfc6c;) represents a past ac- 
tion as continuing during another past action, and accom- 
panying it ; the perfect {%pbvoq irapatcelfievog tg> irapovri) 
and pluperfect (6 virepovvrsXttiorf) designate an action com- 
pleted, but continuing in its immediate consequences to an- 
other time ; the perfect to the present, the pluperfect to a 
time past. 

5. In the same way the future is conceived under three 
modifications : either as simply future, without reference to 
another action, as in the futures active and middle ; or as 
future and complete, as in the first and second futures pass- 
ive ; or as future and with reference to an action to take 
place in a still more remote futurity, as in the third future 
passive. 

I 



480 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREEK VERB. 

1. According to what has just been remarked, the present, as in 
all languages, designates an action present and still incomplete ; 
while, of the three tenses of past time, the aorist marks a past action 
in itself, without any reference to another action at the same or a 
different time. 

2. The perfect, on the contrary, expresses an action which has 
taken place, indeed, at a previous time, but is connected, either in 
itself or its consequences, or its accompanying circumstances, with 
the present time. Thus, lypatya, " / wrote," signifies, indeed, the 
completion of the action ; but it does not determine whether the 
consequences of it, namely, the writing which I have written, be 
still existing or not. On the contrary, ytypatya, " I have written" 
besides indicating the fact of my having written, shows also the 
continued existence of the writing. In the same manner, yEydp,nm, 
"I am married:" on the contrary, kydfjLnaa, " I married" Hence 
KEKTTjfiai, signifies, " I possess ;" properly, " I have acquired unto my- 
self, and the acquisition is still mine." 

3. The perfect retains its reference to a continued action through 
all the moods. Thus, 6 /llev ArjGT^g obrog kg rbv Uvpt^TieyeOovra kju- 
6e6X7}Gdo, " let this robber be cast into Pyriphlegethon, and remain 
there.'''' And, again, k^Lovrsg, elnov ryv &vpav KEKTielcdat, "on going 
out, they gave directions that the door should be shut, and kept so." 

4. The imperfect expresses, I. An action continuing during an- 
other action which is past. It differs from the aorist in this, that 
the aorist marks an. action past, but transient ; the imperfect an ac- 
tion past, but at that time continuing. Thus, rovg Kelraordg e6e^- 
avro (an immediate action) ol j3dp6apot, ical kfxdxovro (continued ac- 
tion), ettel 6' kyyvg rjaav (continued) ol dnTdrai krpdnovro (immediate) ; 
teal ol fiEV TZETiTaoral evSbg e'ltzovto (continued), " the barbarians re- 
ceived the targeteers and fought ; but when the heavy-armed men were 
near they turned away in flight, and the targeteers immediately pursued 
them." 

5. The imperfect also expresses, 2. An action continued by be- 
ing frequently repeated ; as, rbv g'ltov rbv kv ry x^P a ^Le^OeipeTe, nal 
T7]v yrjv ETEfivETE, " you destroyed, from time to time, the grain through- 
out the country, and you ravaged the land." 

6. This same tense also expresses, on some occasions, an action 
begun or contemplated, but not completed ; or, in other words, an 
attempt not brought to a successful conclusion ; as, kfiLodovro, " he 
wished to hire" (Herod., i., 68). And again, rapt eOvvcks rsKva, "my 
children were on the point of losing their lives." 

7. The third future passive, or futurum exactum, expresses an ac- 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREEK VERB. 



481 



tzon which is conceived of as past in some future time ; future in 
relation to time present, past in relation to time future ; and it ex- 
presses, like the perfect, the continuance of such an action in its con- 
sequences and effects. Thus, tfiol de XeTLEfyerai aTiysa Xvypd, " while 
mournful woes shall have been left thereafter for me." 

8. Hence of those verbs whose present marks only the beginning 
of an action, but the perfect the complete action, the third future is 
used in order to show that the perfect action is to happen in the fu- 
ture ; as, KTuo/iai, " I acquire :" perf. KEKTVfiai, " / possess :" 3d fut. 
K€KTrjaofiat, " / shall possess whereas KTijeojiai means merely, " I 
shall acquire for myself 1 

9. The third future is sometimes used to express more vividly the 
immediate occurrence of some future action ; as, xeiravaeTaL, " he 
shall instantly cease :" 7T£7rpd^£Tat, " it shall straightway be done." It 
is this meaning which has obtained for it the less correct name of 
Paulo-post-futurum, namely, what will take place soon, or a little 
after the present. 

10. Besides the simple forms of the future, there is also a per- 
iphrastic future, made up of fiiXTiu and the infinitive of the present, 
the aorist, or the future, and corresponding to the Latin periphrastic 
future of the participle in -urus and the verb sum. It answers to the 
English " being about to do any thing" " intending to do any thing" 
&c. ; as, fxDOio ypd(psiv, " lam about to write" (scripturus sum) : ue%- 
"kijacd ypd<p£iv, " / shall be about to write" {scripturus ero) : kfieXTincra 
ypd^eiVy " / intended to write" (scripturus fui). 

11. The aorist, as has already been intimated, expresses an ac- 
tion simply past ; neither having, like the perfect, any connection 
with time present, nor, like the imperfect, any reference to another 
action, nor any idea of continuance ; as, sypa^a ttjv ETrcaroTirjv, " I 
wrote the letter" (no time defined) : ektIoOtj tj ttoTuc, " the city was 
built" but at no definite time. Hence, as has already been remark- 
ed, the aorist is employed when any action is to be represented as 
momentary, and thus is opposed to the imperfect, which denotes con- 
tinuance. 

12. As the force of the aorist extends over the whole space of 
past time, without reference to any single definite moment, it is 
used to express an action which took place repeatedly in past 
time, or in the statement of some general truth, which operated at 
different indefinite moments of past time. On such occasions it is 
to be rendered either as a present, or by the phrase " to be wont" 
" to be in the habit of." Thus, f]v tic tovtcov tl napaBalvn fyutav 
kiredecav, " if any person transgress any one of these, they inflict pun* 

Ss 



482 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREEK VERB. 



ishment upon him, 11 i. e., they are in the habit of doing it, they always 
do it. 

13. The tragic writers often use the aorist to express a determi- 
nation which is present indeed, but which is supposed to have been 
long and firmly conceived in the speaker's breast ; as, col rav-f, 
'A^fA/lewf tekvov, TraprfVEGa, " son of Achilles, I advise you this, and 
have advised you' 1 (Soph., Phil.,, 1434) : uucoga d' olov epyov p.gt 7 kpyaa- 
tecv, u I have long, with sorrow, thought what kind of a deed must be 
done" (Eur., Med., 791). 

14. The aorist is always used like the perfect to express future 
events which must certainly happen. The momentary force of the 
aorist expresses, yet more strongly than the perfect, the inevitable, 
and, as it were, instantaneous development of that which is as yet 
future ; as, cnrohoueod' up', el nanbv irpocoiaofiev viov no-laiti, " we 
are certainly undone, then, if we are to add a new evil to the old one." 
(Eurip., Med., 78.) 

15. The second aorist active differs from the first in form alone, not 
in meaning. Two modes of forming the past or historical tense got 
early into use in Greece ; the one gave that which we call the first 
aorist, the other that which we call the second aorist. The former, 
from its origin, was truly a distinct tense, having a system of termi- 
nations altogether peculiar to itself ; but the latter is little else than 
a slight modification of the imperfect. Usage early declared itself 
in favor of the former ; and, at the period when Greek literature 
began, the second form obtained only in a limited number of the 
more primitive verbs ; while every verb of more recent and deriva- 
tive formation exhibited the first exclusively. In a very few words 
only are both forms to be found ; and even in these, the duplicates, 
for the most part, belong to different dialects, ages, or styles. In 
import, these two forms of the aorist never differed. 

16. A satisfactory illustration of the principle which has just been 
stated in relation to the second aorist may be found in our own 
language. In English, also, there are two originally distinct modes 
of forming the common past tense : the first by adding the syllable 
ed, as in I killed ; the other chiefly by certain changes in the vowels ; 
as in I wrote, I saw, I knew, J ran, &c. Let the student call the 
former and regular form the first aorist, and the latter the second, 
and he will have a correct idea of the amount of the distinction be- 
tween those tenses in Greek. The form ervxpa in Greek is w r hat I 
killed is in English ; that is, the regular form of the past tense, which 
obtains in a vast majority of verbs : the form elaBov, on the con- 
trary, is altogether analogous to I took, or I saw, acknowledged by all 



VOICES. 



483 



grammarians not as a second or distinct preterit, but as an in- 
stance of irregular variety of formation obtaining in certain verbs. 

17. It may be objected to this view of the subject, that there are 
verbs in Greek in which both forms of the aorist occur. A careful 
examination, however, will prove that the number of such verbs is 
extremely small compared with that of those which have only the 
one or the other aorist. But even here the analogy is supported by 
the English verb, since we meet with many instances in which Eng- 
lish verbs retain both forms of the preterit. Thus, for example, 2* 
hanged, or / hung ; J spit, or / spat ; I awaked, or I awoke ; I cleft, I 
clave, or / clove. Such duplicates in Greek verbs are extremely 
rare ; probably there is not one Greek verb in five hundred in which 
they can be met with. The form called the second aorist is, indeed, 
common enough ; but, then, where it exists, that of the first aorist is 
almost always wanting. We have evpov, elaBov, eldov, rjyayov, l/U- 
ttov, edpafiov ; but the regular form is as much a nonentity in these 
verbs as it is in the English verbs J found, I took, I saw, I led, I left, 
I ran, &c. The first aorist in these would be sheer vulgarity ; it 
would be parallel to I finded, I taked, I seed. 

18. In strictness, therefore, the Greek verb has but one aorist act- 
ive ; that aorist, when regular, following the model of ervipa, but 
being sometimes formed less regularly, in another manner, like eha- 
Bov. Now and then, in the variety of dialects and styles, two forms 
appear in the same verb, as in ineiaa and emdov ; one of these, how- 
ever, as in this instance enetaa, being that in ordinary use, the other 
rare, anomalous, and nearly obsolete. (Philological Museum, No. 
iv., p. 197.) 



VOICES. 

The active voice of the Greek verb having nothing very peculiar 
in its signification, when compared with the corresponding voice of 
the Latin verb, we shall confine our remarks to the middle and 
passive. 

Middle Voice. 

1. The middle voice has been so called by grammarians because 
occupying a kind of middle station between the active and passive 
voices. 

2. The principal usages of the middle voice may be ranked as 
five in number ; and the first four may be called usages of reflexive, 
the fifth the usage of reciprocal signification. 

Usage 1. Where A does the act on himself, or on what belongs 



484 



VOICES. 



to himself ; or, in other words, is the object of his own action ; as, 
airijyZaTo, " he hung himself :" krviparo, " he struck himself :" Ke<f>aX^v 
kKoiparoy " wounded his own head :" rot>f 7rd(5af hiiparo, " washed 
his own feet. 11 

Usage 2. Where A does the act on some other object M, relative- 
ly to himself, and not for another person ; as, KareoTpeipaTo tov M^- 
dovy " he made the Mede subject to himself" So, napaciKEvd&Gdai n f 
" to prepare something for one's self: 11 aipelodat rt f " to take something 
for one's self ':" rtpaTTeaOac xpv^^i make money for one's self: 11 
dyeodat yvvalKa, " to take a wife unto one's self: 11 hetneadai fxvn/ioov- 
va, " to leave memorials for one's self: 11 tyipeodat ra devTepala, "to 
carry off the second prize for one's self: 1 ' deodai vofiovc, M to make laws 
by which one's self is also bound 11 (but -&elvac vo/liovc, " to make laws 
for others 1 '), &c. 

Remark. Hence there is a difference between the active and 
middle voices of some verbs ; the latter signifying that the ac- 
tion of the verb was done for one's own benefit, and thence 
having a meaning directly contrary to that of the active voice ; 
as, Tivaai, "to set free" but "kvcaodac, " to ransom" i. e., to free 
for one's self : Tlaai, "to pay" but Tioaadat, "to punish" i. e., 
to pay another back for some injury done to one's self, &c. 
These verbs, however, form, in strictness, a branch of those to 
be mentioned under Usage 3. 
Usage 3. Where A gets an action done for himself, or for those 
belonging to him, by B. Thus, diddffKeadat tov vlov, " to get one 1 * 
son instructed :" davel^eadat, "to get a foan for one's self," "to bor- 
row" (but davetfctv, " to lend") : ypdtyscdat Tiva, " to accuse one," i. e., 
to cause the name of the accused to be entered before the judge : 
TV7rov iTotrjad/ievog XlOlvov, " having caused a stone monument to be 
made 11 {Herod., iii., 88), &c. 

Remark. This sense of causing a thing to be done is gener- 
ally represented as arising from the power of the middle verb ; 
but we see, in fact, both in the Greek and in other languages, 
that it is merely a form of expression, and applied no less to 
active than to middle verbs, and therefore cannot be said, in 
strictness, to arise from the middle verb, though the middle 
verb somewhat heightens the notion of personal interest in the 
action. 

Usage 4. Where, in such verbs as KorrronaL, " to mourn :" aevouai, 
" to urge one's self on," &c, the direct action is done by A on himself, 
but an accusative or other case follows of B, whom that action far- 
ther regards. Thus, iKoipavTo abrdv, "they mourned for him" i. e. t 



VOICES. 



485 



they cut or lacerated themselves for him : cevovtcli avrbv, " they stir 
themselves in pursuit of him :" ETiKkiaQnaav avrov, " they tore their hair 
in mourning for him" So, also, (pvXd^ac rbv Tzalda, " to guard the 
boy;" but (pvTid^aGdat rbv "Kiovra, "to guard one's self against the 
lion" (where QvXdTTEcdai, in the middle, answers to the Latin ca~ 
vere) : and, again, where, in the Iliad, it is said of Hector, tic eIttcjv, 
ov izacdbg bpi^aro, " thus having spoken, he stretched out his arms to 
receive his son." 

Usage 5. Where the action is reciprocal between two persons or 
parties, and A does to B what B does to A ; as in verbs signifying 
" to contract" " to quarrel," " to fight," " to converse," &c. Thus, in 
Demosthenes, it is said, fug dv diahvcco/ieda rbv ttoXe/llov, " until we 
shall have put an end to the war by treaty mutually agreed upon." To 
this head belong such verbs as (ldxecdai, " to fight together :" gtcev- 
deodai, "to make a truce or league," i. e., to pour out mutual liba- 
tions, &c. 

General Observations on the Middle Voice. 

1. Many verbs exist only in the middle voice, being called, in con- 
sequence, Deponents ; and, though we can not discern the exact 
relation in which the reflexive stands to the active notion of the 
verb, as the active form is no longer in existence, yet they mostly 
express notions in which self is very nearly interested, such as Je- 
XO\iai, Tjyio/naL, rjdofiat, ualvo/iai, aicddvo/naL, aoTzd^ofiai, &C. 

2. The reflexive sense of the middle is often so weak that it is 
scarcely discernible by us. It frequently consists in the notion of 
doing an action in which we are specially interested, for our own 
good or harm, which we do not usually express. Hence, sometimes 
the personal pronoun is used with the middle verb ; as, Soph., 0. T., 
3143, EfiavTu dpsipat/Linv : Eur., Hel., 1306, rpvxov av (javTrjv, &c. 

3. The middle notion is sometimes expressed by the active verb 
and personal pronoun ; as, Demosth., p. 22, dvvap.iv kcltegkevclgev 
eavrC). With some verbs, indeed, this is always the case ; as, an- 

iKTELVEV ECtVTOV, UOt CL7TEKTELVCLT0 \ ETZqVECEV EOVrOV, not ETZVVEGaro I 
dltEGfyal-EV ECLVTOV, not dlTEG^d^aTO. 

4. In the Homeric and post-Homeric dialect there occur many 
intransitive verbs, especially those which express a perception of 
the mind or the senses, either in the middle voice only, or in the 
middle as well as the active ; while the later writers used the form 
in u; which confirms the notion that the middle form was originally 
the proper expression of intransitive and reflexive notions. And 
when the later form in w arose, it followed that many intransitive 




486 



VOICES. 



verbs were used in both forms without any difference of sense ; as, 
iv., 331, clkoveto Tiadg avrrjc, &c. — The more limited usage of 
prose generally adopted but one or the other of such forms, or used 
both with a difference of meaning. Some are found, however, 
without any such difference, even in Attic prose ; as, KaMuepiu, 
-ofxaL : evdoKLjLiEG), -o/uai : Grparonedevoj -o/licu. 

5. From this intransitive reflexive force of the middle a great dif- 
ference of meaning arises between the active and middle sense of 
some verbs, a secondary sense having been adopted from the re- 
flexive. The active form indicates an action as objective, that is, 
without any reference to the subject ; the middle expresses the 
same action as subjective, that is, with especial reference to the 
mind of the subject ; as, gkottelv, " to look at :" ctcoTrelodaL, " to look 
mentally " " to consider :" rideadat, " to place before one's mind" H to 
think :" Xavddvo), " I escape notice" but Xavddvo/Liat, " I escape my 
own notice" "I forget:" tzoielv ?.6yov, "to write a speech" but ttol- 
eicrdaL \oyov, " to deliver a speech" " to harangue." And this distinc- 
tion is very marked in those verbs in -evo which, in the active, have 
merely an intransitive sense of being in a state, while the middle 
signifies to act the part of such a character, to live in such a state ; 
as, rcovnpEvcd, "I am wicked:" TzovnpEvofiai, 11 1 behave wickedly:" 
p\aKEVG), "I am idle:" pTiafcsvofiai, "I behave idly:" ttoTutevu, "I 
am a citizen:" Txo\iTEvop.a,i, *' I live as a citizen:" CTpaTsvo, "J un- 
dertake an expedition" said of a general : OTpaTevo/xai, " lam engaged 
in an expedition," said of a soldier, &c. 

6. The middle derivatives in 4&[iat, correspond in meaning to 
those in -Evofzat ; as, x a P LevT ^°l Jia h " I ac t gracefully :" aKKi(ofzai t " / 
dress finely" &c. The derivatives, from national names, in ~Zfo 9 
have no middle form ; as, duplfa, " I dorize" 



Observations on the Second Perfect Active, formerly called 
the Perfect Middle. 

1. The tense formerly called perfect middle is now more correctly 
denominated the second perfect active, while the appellation of per- 
fect middle has been bestowed on what was once styled the perfect 
passive. 

2. With regard to the second perfect active, it may be remarked, 
that this tense is of very rare occurrence, so as to have far more the 
character of an occasional redundancy than of a regular formation. 
In fact, when the preterit exists in this particular form, it very 
rarely exists in the same verb in any other form ; and where two 



VOICES. 



48? 



forms do occur, it will generally be found that the one did not come 
into use till the other was growing obsolete. The second perfect, 
it is true, has undoubtedly some degree of alliance with a neuter 
meaning, but then this alliance is very far from being constant. This 
form has often a truly active and transitive signification ; as, for ex- 
ample, MTionra, " I have left :" ektovcl, u I have killed:" while, on the 
other hand, the form called the first perfect is of frequent occurrence 
in a neuter or reflexive sense ; as in KSKfinna, " lam weary :" sGTrjua, 
" I stand:" fiepL^v^Ka, " 1 remain :" j3s6l<jKa, "I have lived" &c. 
These instances, which might easily be multiplied, are sufficient to 
prove that there is no good ground for assigning to either of these 
forms of the perfect any determinate cast of signification, whether 
it be active or neuter. Some preference of what is called the second 
perfect, for the neuter sense, is the utmost that can with truth be 
ascertained. In a few instances both the forms certainly do exist, 
and with a characteristic difference of signification ; as, oAuAe/ca, "I 
have destroyed ;" and o/lcj/la, **/ am undone:" nerceLKa, " I have per- 
suaded ;" and iTETzocda, " I am confident :" in others the two forms oc- 
cur, indeed, but with little discrimination in sense ; as, izenpaxa and 
7riirpaya, SiSoixa and didta. 

Passive Voice. 

1. From the reflexive receptive sense of the verb, as shown in 
the middle voice, arose its passive receptive sense, or, in other words, 
its passive voice, whereby the subject is represented as receiving an 
action from some one else, and becoming the patient or recipient of 
it ; as, ^rjfiLovfiaL vizo nvoc, " 2" am punished hy some one :" TTeldofiai, 
vno tivoc, " I am persuaded by some one" &c. 

2. There are especial passive forms for the expression of the 
passive sense in the future and aorist, which, however, are in many 
verbs frequently used as intransitive or reflexive: all other tenses 
are expressed by the tenses of the middle, the use of the middle 
forms, in a passive sense, arising from the affinity between the pass- 
ive and reflexive notions, and the want of the proper passive forms. 

3. It would seem, then, that as the passive notion of receiving 
from another became more defined, the form whereby it was already 
expressed still represented it in most of the tenses ; while, for its 
more accurate definition in past and future time, fresh forms were 
quickly invented, partly from the middle, partly from the active. 
So the Sclavonic language has no passive, but uses the reflexive ; 
and the Sanscrit has a transitive form (Parasmaipadam) and a re- 
flexive (Atmanepadam), the endings of which latter are used to ex- 



488 



VOICES. 



press the passive, which is distinguished from the reflexive only by 
the addition of ja to the root of the verb. 

3. The aorist and future of the passive seem to be formed from 
the active. The second aorist passive seems properly to be only a 
second aorist active, after the analogy of verbs in -pi, with an in- 
transitive sense, while the first aorist was transitive ; as, efe7rA^fa t 
" I frightened ; n eZenXdynv, " / shuddered :" earned, " I placed : 11 eu~ 
rnv, " I stood. 11 But, as an intransitive notion properly expresses 
only a state consequent on a completed action, and not the perform- 
ance or completion of that action, a letter (#) was inserted in this 
second aorist to signify this performance or completion ; as, efrn'ka- 
yr}v, " I shuddered : 17 k%e , K'kT}x\Q~\nv , " I have been frightened : n earnv, 
"I stood: 11 eGTul&lnv, " I have been placed." And from both these 
aorists were formed futures with the middle endings ; as, Tuttti-cfo- 
paL, 7i€i(j)6fj-<jofiac. 

4. The letter which thus gives the passive force to the intrans- 
itive notion, answers to the t or d of the participle in the cognate 
languages : thus, da-tah> Sanscrit, from da, " to give da-tus, Latin ; 
da-deh, Persian ; tavi-ts, tavi-da, tavi-th f Gothic, from tau, " to do :" 
and so, fac-tus, bren-dur. 

5. In the Homeric language, this difference between the first and 
second aorists passive is yet clearer ; as, rpatynv, " I grew up 
eOpeydnv, " / was brought up" &c. But in process of time the dif- 
ference between these tenses was lost, so that most verbs formed 
only one or the other to express the passive notion. 

6. As the middle forms were used for the passive, so these pass- 
ive forms were, in many verbs, used to express the reflexive and 
intransitive notion; as, rpaniivai, "to turn one's self: 11 QoSndqvai, 
"to fear:" opfindfjvai, "to speed forth: 11 anaTChayrjvai, "to remove 
<me's self. 11 — When the aorist, both middle and passive, was in use ; 
as, hxvfinv and exvOnv, rapTriadac and Teptydfjvai, dpfJtrjaao&at and 6p- 
pnQfivai, the intransitive notion might be expressed by either, the 
passive only by the passive form. 

7. That all such verbs originally expressed these passive notions 
by the middle form is probable, from the fact that of many verbs 
we find a middle form in the Homeric dialect, while the later wri- 
ters use the passive ; as, dyapai, rjyaadfinv (Epic) : riydodnv (Attic) : 
Ipafiai, ijpaadfjtnv (Epic) : 7/pdadnv (Attic). 

8. Where both forms are in use, the Ionic and oldest Attic wri- 
ters preferred the first aorist ; those of the later era the more bar* 
monious form of the second aorist passive. 



FORCE OF THE MOODS, 



489 



DEPONENT VERBS. 
Deponent verbs, as already remarked, are those verbs which 
exist only in the middle. They are divided, as to their form, into 
deponents middle and deponents passive, according as their aorists ap- 
pear either in the middle or passive form; as, xaptfrpai, kxapwafinv \ 
tvdvpeopai, hedv/iiTjdnvL 

2. In many deponent verbs the reflexive sense is apparently lost, 
at least to us, as we do not know what the active sense of the verb 
may have expressed ; so that they seem to have an independent 
transitive or intransitive sense, though it is probable that there was 
originally a corresponding active form. Of some verbs we rind sin- 
gle instances of the active ; as, ptd£v, Scjpicj, fivx^vdu, loveu. And 
some active forms may be traced through the Latin ; as, gigno, yiy- 
vu, ylyvopac. 

3. From this original active form, or active sense of the deponents, 
it arose, that many deponents have a passive meaning, correspond- 
ing to this existing or implied active notion, especially in the per- 
fect, and some, also, a passive form of the first aorist, besides the 
first aorist middle. — In the decline of the language, after the time of 
Aristotle, when the convenience of the form was rather looked to 
than the accuracy of the notion, the use of the middle in the passive 
sense was more extended. 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 
Indicative. 

The indicative is used in Greek when any thing is to be represent- 
ed as actually existing or happening, and as something independent 
of the thought and conception of the speaker. Hence it is put in 
very many cases where, in Latin, the subjunctive must be used. 

1. The indicative is put after relatives, both pronouns and parti- 
cles, where, in Latin, the dependence of this clause is expressed by 
the subjunctive ; the Greek often uses the future of the indicative 
to denote what shall or will happen, not what is merely conceived 
as such. Thus, Soph., Philoct., 303, ov yap tic op/ioc korlv, ovd 1 onot 
TrXewv. kfjepnoXrio'ei Kepdoc, i) t-evuoerai, "for there is no harbor (here), 
nor any place unto which one sailing shall carry on therein gainful 
traffic, or be hospitably entertained.'''' 

2. The indicative is also used after negative propositions with the 
relative ; as, nap' kfioi ovdelc (xioBodopeZ, bang pr\ Uavog kariv Icra 
irovetv tfjiot, "no soldier serves for pay with me who is not able to en 



490 



FORCE OP THE MOODS. 



dure equal toils with me." Here the Latin idiom would require qui 

possiu 

3. The indicative is likewise used in indirect interrogations ; thus, 

opdre tl noiovjuiev, " you see what we are actually doing." Whereas* 
Spare tl noi&fiev means, u you see what we are to do" So, also, 
ktielvoc olde riva Tpoirov ol viol dLayOelpovTai, " he knows in what way 
the young are actually destroyed" Here diatydelpoivfo dv would mean, 
"might be destroyed" 

Imperative* 

The imperative is used in Greek, as in other languages, in ad- 
dresses, entreaties, commands, &c. The personal pronouns, as in 
other languages, are omitted, except when they serve for distinction 
or have an emphasis. 

1. The second person sometimes receives an indefinite subject, 
and thus stands, as it were, for the third ; as, 7rarc, nale nac tic dv, 
" strike, strike, every one, whosoever thou mayest be." 

2. Sometimes the plural of the imperative is used, though only 
one person be addressed, whenever strength of feeling is meant to 
be expressed, or any other force is to be imparted to the clause ; as, 
irpociWer', u ftai, irarpi, " come, oh my child, to thy father." 

3. The negative fifj is joined in prohibitions with the imperative, 
if the present tense be required ; but, if the aorist be needed, the 
mood then changes to the subjunctive ; as, Herod., i., 155, av fievroi 

ndvra #V[i€) XP™-, f&l& e^avaarijayc nohiv apxalnv, " do not thou 
indeed yield in all things to thy anger, nor have destroyed an ancient 
city." So, in Od., xvi., 168, we have [ir)d y enficevde, "and be not con- 
cealing it ;" but in Od., xv., 263, pnff hniKSvayc, " and do not have con' 
cealed it" 

4. The imperative is used not unfrequently by the Attic poets in 
a dependent proposition after olad' d>c, or olcd' 6 ; as, Soph., (Ed. T., 
543, oicd' (be TToirjGov ; " knowest thou in what way thou must act 1" 
(i. e., act, knowest thou, in what way ?) ; olod' ovv b Spdaov ; " knowest 
thou what to do V (i. e., do, knowest thou what 1) 

5. The imperative sometimes expresses not so much a command 
as a declaration of what is proper to be done, according to the situa- 
tion in which a person is placed ; as, Eurip., Iph. T., 337, evxov Se 
Totad* ccpdyia Ttapelvai, " thou shouldst wish, therefore, for such victims 
to be present." So, also, JEschyl., Prom., 713, arelx' avnporovc yvac, 
" thou must go over unploughed fields" 

6. Hence the imperative is found also in interrogations, after par- 
ticles or the relative ; as, Plat., Leg., vii., p. 801, D., ft ovv ; nelvOu 
vo/xoc ; " what then ? shall a law exist J" 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 



491 



Optative. 

The optative and subjunctive express, according to its different 
modifications and shades of meaning, that which in Latin can only 
be signified by the subjunctive. Both represent an action, not as 
something real, but rather as something only conceived of. That 
which is conceived of, however, is either something merely possible, 
probable, desirable, and, consequently, uncertain, or something which, 
as it depends on external circumstances, may be expected with some 
definiteness. The former is expressed by the optative, the latter by 
the subjunctive. Hence, 

The optative is used to indicate a wish, something merely possi- 
ble or probable, and, therefore, especially accompanies past actions. 

Optative in Dependent Propositions. 

1. The optative is used in the expression of a wish, and is then 
put without dv, or, its equivalent, the poetic ke ; as, ricretav Aavaol 
efia dd/cpva oolgl ($e?ieoglv, " may the Greeks atone for my tears by thy 
arrows." And again, w iral yivoco narpbc evtvxectepoc, " oh, my son, 
may est thou be more fortunate than thy father." 

2. In this case, el, el yap, or elde, utinam, or (he, or else n&c dv, are 
often used with the optative ; as, Od., iii., 205, el yap hptol TooaTjvde 
&eoi 6vvajj.LV napadelev, " would that the gods had bestowed upon me so 
great power." And again, Callim., frag. 7, Xa? u v6o)v 6c clttoXolto 
ytvoe, u would that the race of the Chalybes might perish." 

3. On other occasions the optative is used in connection with av, 
or, its equivalent, the poetic ke, in order to give to a proposition an 
expression of mere conjecture or bare possibility, and hence of un- 
certainty or doubt. Thus, Plato, Leg., iii., p. 677, B., oi tote Trept- 
(pvyovree rr]v (bdopav axedov opeiol tlvec av eIev vo/llelc, " they who on 
that occasion escaped destruction were, probably, with a few exceptions, 
mountain shepherds." *So, also, Xenophon, Cyrop., i., 2, 11, Kal drj- 
ptivrec p.Ev ovk av apLarrjoaLev, " and while actually engaged in the hunt 
they hardly ever breakfast." Hence it is employed in a rough esti- 
mate ; as, Xen., Cyrop., i., 2, 13, elnaav filv dv ovtol ttXelov tl t) ttev- 
TrjKovra ettj ysyovorsg dnb ysvsdc, " these, on a rough estimate, are 
somewhat more than fifty years of age." 

4. The optative with dv is, therefore, employed also to denote an 
inclination, the indulgence of which depends on circumstances, and 
which is, therefore, only possible and contingent. Thus, fiovloLfiriv 
dv, u I could wish:" eCov'kofinv dv, "I could have wished." So, also, 
Plato, Crat., p. 411, A., 7/6eg)c dv tiEaoatfinv ravra rd KaXd ovofiara, 
u I would gladly contemplate those fine terms." 



492 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 



5. Hence the optative occurs in interrogations; as, II, iii., 52, 
ovk av 6r] jLieiveia? 'ApnfyiAov MeveTlclgv ; " couldst thou not then await 
Menelaus dear-to-Mars V So, also, Plato, Gorg., iikX* dpa edehrjaeicv 
hv ijfuv diaTiexdfjvaL ; " but would lie be willing to converse with us V 

6. Very often, however, the optative serves to express even the 
most definite assertions with modesty and politeness, as a mere con- 
jecture ; a moderation which, in consequence of their political 
equality, was peculiar to all the Greeks, but particularly the Athe- 
nians, and which very seldom occurs in modern languages. Thus, 
Arisloph., Plut., 284, ovket 1 av Kpvijjaifii, "J will no longer conceal it 
from you. 11 

Of the Optative in Dependent Propositions, or after Conjunctions. 

1. When the chief verb of the whole proposition, or, in other 
words, the leading verb in the sentence, expresses an action of past 
time, the following verb, which depends upon the conjunction, is 
put in the optative. If, on the other hand, the leading verb be in 
the present or the future tense, the following verb is put in the sub- 
junctive. Thus, that which is in Latin the sequence of tenses, is 
in Greek the sequence of moods. The subjunctive, therefore, in 
Greek, after a conjunction, answers to the Latin present of the sub- 
junctive, while the optative after a conjunction answers to the Latin 
imperfect of the subjunctive. 

2. The conjunctions and particles after which these moods are 
thus put are, 1. Those which express a purpose; as, Iva, 5<f>pa, 6c, 
onoe., and /litj. 2. Particles of time ; as, ette'i, firstSt}, ote, ug, and 
knrjv, ETTEiddv, brav, nplv, euc, &c. 3. Conditional particles ; as, el, 
and hdv, qv. 4. Relatives ; as, oc, oloc, ogoc, bnov, 66ev, &c. 

1. Optative after Iva, 6<ppa, &e. 

1. Here, particularly, the rule just mentioned holds good, accord- 
ing to which the optative is put after verbs of past time ; as, TvdEidn 
TlaXkdr e6uke (mevoc nai d-dpGoc, lv' ekSvXoc ysvotro nal kTieoc dpotro, 
" Minerva gave strength and daring to Tydides, in order that he might 
become conspicuous, and might bear off renown. 11 

2. The optative is also employed when the leading verb is in the 
present tense as used for the past. Thus, Eurip., Hec, 10, 7ro?ivv 

6e OVV EftOl XP va ° v EKTTEfXTTEL TidBpa TTOT^p, lv', ELTrOT' 'M'lOV TEIXV KEGOl, 

Tolg &OLV sin natcl [it] cndvig /3iov, " and my father sends out secretly 
along with me a large quantity of gold, in order that, if the walls of 
Ilium should fall, there might be unto his surviving children no want of 
the means of subsistence." 

3. Sometimes, also, the optative is used after a leading verb in 



FORCE OP THE MOODS. 



493 



the present or future, when the action which follows the conjunc- 
tion is to be marked as only presumptive and probable. Thus, Od. t 
ii., 52, naTpbg [lev eg olkov anepfrtyaai (present perfect) veecOai 'Itca- 
piov, 6g avrog eedvuaatfo ftvyarpa, " they dread to go to the house of 
her father, Icarius, that, he may perhaps give some dowry to his daugh- 
ter." So, also, Soph., (Ed. Col., 11, arf^aov fie Katjldpveov, ug nvdot" 
fieda, "place and seat me here, that we may perchance learn.' 1 

4. Very frequently, where the leading verb is in the past tense, 
the following verb is put after tva, 6c, or firj, in the indicative mood, 
to express an action which should have happened, but has not. 

Thus, Eurip., Phozn., 213, Tvptov 616 pa alitovo* e6av lv 1 vno 

deipaci Rapvacov Karevdadnv, " having left the Tyrian wave, 1 came 

hither and should have been now dwelling beneath the summits 

of Parnassus 11 

2. Optative after Particles of Time. 

1. The optative is put with the particles lire/, kTzeidfj, ore, Snore, 
where the discourse is concerning a past action, which, however, 
was not limited to a precise point of time, but was often repeated 
by several persons or in several places. Thus, iii., 232, ttoaXuki 
fjtv t-eivicoev 'ApnfyiAog MeveXaog, Snore Kpyrndev ikoito, " Menelaus, 
beloved of Mars, often entertained him when he came from Crete. 1 ' So, 
also, Herod., vii., 6, 6 nog airiKoiro kg oipiv rrjv (5aGLArjog .... xariAeye 
ruv xpnaiL&v, "as often as he came into the presence of the king he 
mentioned some of the oracles. 11 

2. With the remaining particles of time, which do not determine 
a space of time during which an action takes place, but a point of 
time before or until which something takes place ; as, £ug, ear' dv, 
irplv, ftexptg ov, the optative is used, for the most part, in the same 
cases as with Iva and o<ppa. Thus, nepLefxevofiev eug dvotx^eln to 
deafiuTTipiov, " vje remained about the place until the prison was open' 
ed. 11 But " while 11 " as long as" has only the indicative. 

3. Optative after Conditional Particles. 
1. The optative is used after conditional particles when the ref- 
erence is to something that is merely possible or contingent. In 
this construction the optative is employed with dv in the apodosis, 
or second clause of the sentence, to show that a case is adduced 
which is merely problematical, while in the protasis, or leading 
clause, the optative is used with el, without av, as the condition it- 
self is also only problematical. Thus, el rig rovg ttparovvrag rov ttaij- 
Bovg kir' dperrjv nporpeipeiev, dfKpore'povg av oxpeArjaetev, " if one would 
urge on to virtue those who control the multitude, he would benefit both. 17 

T T 



494 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 



2. But when the condition contains a determinately expressed 
case, ei is used with the indicative in the leading clause. Thus, 
Soph., Antig., 925, ak7i y , ei fiev ovv Tad' earlv kv #eoic ty'ika, TzaOovreg 
&v t-vyyvoi/uev TjfiaprrjKOTeg, " but if, then, these things are approved of 
among the gods, we may, perhaps, by suffering, be made conscious that 
we have erred. 11 

3. On the other hand, ei is used with the optative in the protasis, 
or leading clause, and the indicative in the apodosis, or succeeding 
part of the sentence, when the latter asserts something definitely, 
while the protasis conveys only a possible case. Thus, Thucyd., 
ii., 5, oi a?Jkoi QvSaioi, ovg edei rfjc vvktoc. napayeviaOai navcrpaTiq, 
el n apa jut) Trpo^cjpoln toic eaeTinTivdoai, eneSorjOovv, " the rest of the 
Thebans whom it behooved to be present during the night with their full 
force, if, perchance, success should not attend those who had entered the 
city, 11 &c. 

4. Optative after the Relatives be, baric, &c. 

1. If the relatives refer to definite persons or things, they are fol- 
lowed by the indicative ; but if the person or thing be indefinite, 
then the verb is in the optative or subjunctive ; in the optative 
with av when the whole proposition affirms something of past time, 
and in the subjunctive with av when it affirms something of present 
or future time. Thus, bvriva fiev fiaaikfja Kal efrxov dvdpa Kixein, 
rovS* dyavoig eireeaaiv kprjrvaaaKe irapaardc, li whatever monarch and 
distinguished chieftain he found, this one, standing by his side, he de- 
tained by bland words. 11 And again, ndvrac ore) kvrvxoiev, icai naldag 
tcai yvvattcag, ureivovreg, u slaying all, whomsoever they might meet, 
both children and women. 11 

2. From these, however, are to be distinguished those passages 
in which the optative is put after the relatives, in the sense which 
it usually has in independent propositions. Here it regularly takes 
av, and is found even when a present action is spoken of. Thus, 
ovk eari tovtov baric &v KaraKrdvoi, " there is no one who might slay 
this person. 11 And again, ov yap ban, irepi brov ovk av iridavurepov 
elnoi 6 fiqropitcde rj aXKoc oarigovv, " for there is nothing about which 
the rhetorician would not speak in a more persuasive manner than any 
other person whatsoever 11 

5. Optative in the " Oratio Obliqua." 
1. When any thing that has been said or thought by another is 
quoted as such, not as an idea or sentiment of the writer himself, 
and yet not in the words of the speaker, but in narration (i. e., in 
oratione obliqua), the optative is frequently used, and without av. 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 



495 



Thus, ol 'A^apv^f EKaKifrv rdv UepLttTiea, otl orpaTnybc &v ova kne^- 
uyoL, " the Ackarnians reviled Pericles, because, being commander, he 
did not lead foith against the foe" And again, Ttaaa^Epvnc jllev tifzo- 
<jbv 'kynaiAau, el aitelaairo, ewe eaBolev, ovc 7T€fiipeie 7rp6c f3aGi?Ja 
dyyiTiovc, " Tissaphernes took an oath unto Agesilaus, that, if the latter 
will make a truce with him until the messengers should return, whom he 
had sent to the king," &c. Here ke^ele is used to indicate a mere 
assertion on the part of Tissaphernes, for the truth of which the 
writer does not mean to vouch. 

2. In particular, the optative is put in this case after ore or 6g, 
whether the action belongs to the present, past, or future time. 
Thus, Ty 6e vatepaia tjkev dyysAoc Asytjv, otl aeAolttwc eln Hvevveglc 
Ta aupa, " on the following day, however, a messenger came with the in- 
telligence that Syennesis had left the heights ;" i. e., had left (aeaolttmc 
eitj) the heights, as the messenger said. And again, ayyefkai, otl 
tydpfiaKov itLCiv anoOdvoL, " to announce that, having drunk poison, he 
had died" 

Subjunctive. 

The general distinction between the optative and subjunctive has 
already been given, but may here be stated again. These two 
moods both represent an action, not as something real, but rather 
as something only conceived of. That which is conceived of, how- 
ever, is either something merely possible, probable, desirable, and, 
consequently, uncertain, or something which, as it depends on ex- 
ternal circumstances, may be expected with some definiteness. 
The former is expressed by the optative, the latter by the subjunc- 
tive. 

1. Subjunctive in Independent Propositions. 

1. The subjunctive is used without dv or ke in exhortations in the 
first person plural; as, iujiev, "let us go:" fiax^eda, "let us fight" 
It indicates, therefore, that something ought to take place. But in 
the second and third persons the optative is used, as implying more 
of uncertainty, when the speaker refers not to himself along with 
others, but to others merely. Thus, eaBolev dvd ugtv, nal gv yevoC 
&v ov Kanoq, "let us go throughout the city, and do thou not become 
cowardly." The first person singular of the subjunctive is often 
found in exhortations ; as, IdofiaL, " let me see :" Xiaawy! dvipa tov- 
rov, " let me supplicate this man" 

2. The subjunctive is employed in questions of indecision and 
doubt, when a person asks himself or another what he is to do. In 
these cases it occurs, as in the previous instances, without dv, and 



496 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 



with or without an interrogative particle. Thus, aidt fievo fxerct 
Tola, ijk #£G> fietd g' air eg ; " shall I wait there with these, or shall 1 
run back again unto thee?" And again, H (j>£> ; it Spo ; "what ant 
I to say 1 what am I to do ?" 

3. In a similar way, the subjunctive is used without a conjunc- 
tion, and without dv after (Soviet in interrogations. Thus, (Soviet 
MSojiat drjta nal &[yo ft Gov ; " dost thou wish', then, that I take hold 
of thee, and touch thee in aught V 9 

4. The subjunctive is also employed in questions of indignation, 
with which a previous command or injunction is repeated. Thus, 
Aristoph., Ran., 1132, AION. AtGxvle, irapatvo Got Gtoudv. AI2X. 
tyu giotto rode ; u Bacch. JEschylus, I admonish you to be silent. 
-^Esch. Am 1 to be silent before this man ?" 

5. As regards the construction of ov /irj and /itj ov, with the sub- 
junctive, consult page 392. 

2. Subjunctive in Dependent Propositions* 

1. If the leading verb be in the present or future tense, the follow- 
ing verb is put in the subjunctive, with and without av. Thus, aXK 
Idt, [iri fi' kpedi&, Gaotepoc tie tee vinat, " but go, provoke me not, in 
order that thou may est return in greater safety than otherwise." And 
again, a£%o Iva elSyc, " I will speak, that thou mayest know." 

2. The subjunctive, moreover, is frequently used, although the 
preceding verb be in the perfect tense, when the verb which depends 
upon the conjunction denotes an action that is continued to the 
present time. Thus, Horn., II., v., 127, axKvv 6' ah tol air' htydaAfiov 
'tAov, rj nplv ETTfjev, 60/o' ev~ yivoGnrje rjfJLev -&ebv rjde nal avSpa, "J have, 
moreover, taken away from thy eyes the darkness that was previously 
upon them, in order that thou mayest know well either a god or a man." 
At the time at which Minerva is here represented as speaking, yt- 
vogkijc is a consequence still continuing of the past action denoted 
by ax^vv eaov> 

3. The future is often used instead of the subjunctive. In this 
case the future expresses a state that continues, or something that 
will occur at an indefinite future time. The aorist of the subjunc- 
tive, on the other hand, indicates a transient state occurring in par- 
ticular cases, and then completely concluded. Thus, Spurs firj 
£Ka<jTG) rjuibv Kal 6<pdaA[itiv nal x^P&v SerjGet, " see whether each one of 
us will not need both eyes and hands." On the contrary, Spare [itj nd- 
Oiofiev, "see whether we shall not have suffered." 

3. Subjunctive after Particles of Time. 
1. The subjunctive is put with kitriv, knetddv, 5rav, Sndrav, where 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 



497 



the discourse is concerning an action belonging to present or future 
time. Thus, onep nal vvv in ttolovglv o'l (3dp6apoi fSaailelg, oirorav 
(TTparoTTEdevcjvraL, " which the barbarian monarch* do still, even at the 
present day, whenever they encamp." 

2. Sometimes the subjunctive with these particles does not ex- 
press an action frequently repeated at the present time, but merely 
a future action. Thus, ov yap er' d7Jkn eorai da/sTropr? hirel dv ov ye 
7roT/nov eTrlowng, " for no longer will there be any other solace, when thou 
shalt have encountered thy destined end." 

4. Subjunctive after Conditional Particles. 
When in the apodosis, or latter part of the sentence, the future, 
or the imperative is found, then the condition is expressed by el with 
the future, or more mildly by kdv, tjv, dv (in the Ionic poets el, ks, 
or cuke), with the subjunctive, and uncertainty is denoted with the 
prospect of decision. Thus, kdv tl e^w^ev, dwoojiev, lt if we have 
any thing, we will give it." And again, kdv rig riva tQ>v virapxdvrt^v 
vdficjv fir] Kakuc exetv rjyfjTai, ypacpecdoi "if any one think any one of 
the existing laws unsuitable, let him petition against it." 

5. Subjunctive after the Relatives og, bong, oloc, &c. 
The subjunctive is employed with dv after relatives when the 
proposition affirms something of present or future time. Thus, 
fneode onoi dv Tig Tjyyraiy "follow, whithersoever one may lead you" 
And again, dv 6e k' kyo>v dndvevde /udxyg kdi/,oy~a voyou /utfivd^eiv, ov 
ol dpKLov kooslrai fyvyeeiv nvvag q& oiuvovg, " but. whomsoever I shall 
perceive inclining to remain apart from the fight, it shall not be possible 
for him to escape the dogs and birds" 

Tt2 



498 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



1. The doctrine of the formation of words divides itself naturally 
into two great branches, namely, Derivation and Composition. 

2. Those words from which other words are derived, but which 
are themselves not derived from any others, are called radical words 
or primitives. 

3. A radical word consists of two parts, namely, the root, and the 
flexion-ending ; as, Tpe<p-cj, ypd(j>-cj, (pep-u, Tiey-o. 

4. All radical words are either verbs or pronouns ; and the roots, 
that is, what remains of each radical word after the flexion-ending 
has been removed, are all monosyllabic. The roots themselves, how- 
ever, do not always appear, in the radical words, in a pure form, but 
are frequently strengthened ; as, ddx-v-cj, iK-vi-ofiai, avtj-dv-w, Tv{y)x~ 
dv-u, dTi-lufc-ofiat, 7U-7rpdGKG). 

5. The root often experiences a lengthening in the course of deri- 
vation ; as, Tiijd-n (from Md-elv), xh v (from xdv-elv) ; or else under- 
goes cognation, that is, the substitution of one cognate sound for 
another ; as, Tp£({>-G), rpo<f>-ri, TpoQ-oc, Tpofy-ifioc, rpa<j>-ep6e. — Some- 
times a strengthening by consonants, or a doubling of the final con- 
sonant X, takes place ; as, mXk-oq, from Kak-6c : and, again, some 
stems take a reduplication ; as, bn-un-r], ed-od-q, dy-uy-oe, 2c-Gv-(f>oc 
(from 2E$-£2 : compare aoty-oc). 

6. Particular attention must be paid to the cognation, or change 
of e into o (seldom a), and of ei into oi. This occurs, 1. In polysyl- 
labic oxytons of the first declension in n and d ; as, rpo^-ii, from 
rpecp-u : fiov-7), from /llev-o : <j>op-d, from <j>£p-u : dkoi^-ij, from dXefy-u, 
&c. — 2. In dissyllabic barytons of the second declension, which indi- 
cate a thing done ; as, Tioy-oc, "a word," from ley-u : <f>6v-oe, "mur- 
der," from <j>ev-o : v6(i-og, " a law," from ve/li-m. — 3. In dissyllabic 
oxyton substantives of the second declension, in -fioc, and in polysyl- 
labic oxyton adjectives of the second declension, in -oe, which indicate, 
for the most part, an acting or active subject ; as, iro/zn-oe, " an es- 
cort er" from TTefjL7r-a : ooty-og, " wise" (from 2E$-ft) : rpoty-oe, " a 
nourisher," from rpi(j>-G). — 4. In monosyllabic substantives of the third 
declension ; as, $2,6%, " flame," from (pXey-u : d6p£, " the gazelle" 
from SepK-ofiai. — 5. In oxyton substantives in -eve and adjectives in 
-de ; as, Tpo<j>-Evc, from rpi<f>-(d : aitop-dc, from Gireip-o, <rnep-eiv : %oy- 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



499 



dc, from hey-cj : dpofi-dc, from APE M- 12. — 6. In all derivatives from 
the forms already given ; as, for example, substantives in -c/zof, 
adjectives in -L(ioc, verbs in -aw, -eu, -6to, -evoj-i^u ; as, nTioK-afxoc, 
Tp6<j>-ifioc, Qdov-EO, dcj/z-do), &c. 

I DERIVATION. 
1. Verbs. 

Derivative verbs are all those with the derivative-endings -do), -£u, 
-if -6g>, -vu>, -ev(j y -d£b, -o£g>, -v£cj, -acvu, -vvg>, -alpu, -eipu. — 

All these verbs must, as it would seem, be regarded as denomina- 
tives, that is, as derivatives from substantives and adjectives ; since, 
although a stem-substantive is wanting for many of them, yet the 
analogy of the rest requires that such a stem-substantive be pre- 
supposed in their case also. — Respecting the formation and meaning 
of the verbs in question, the following may be remarked : 

L. Verbs in -dcj and -dfw, which are mostly derived from substan- 
tives of the first declension ; and those in which are formed 
from substantives and adjectives of all declensions, are partly transi- 
tive, partly intransitive ; as, TLfi-du, "I honor, 11 from ti/u-tj : roA/z-dw, 
"i" am bold, 11 from rdA/z-a : StK-d^co, u I dispense justice, 11 from dlfc-n : 
eTiTT-tfa, " J hope, 11 from elin-'ie, &c. 

2. Verbs in -dfa and formed from proper names or national 
appellatives, indicate a striving to imitate either individuals, or 
whole communities, in manners, customs, language, thoughts, &c. ; 
dopc-d^o), " I dorize, 11 i. e., " / imitate the Dorians in life, manners, 
dialect, 11 &c. : kXknv-i^o, " I imitate a Greek in language" &c, "J 
play the Greek {ind-ifa, " I medize, 11 i. e., " I side with the Medes, I 
adopt Median manners, ideas, 11 &c. 

3. Verbs in -d& and have often, moreover, a frequentative and 
intensive signification ; as, pLirT-dfa, " I throw to and fro, 11 " I toss 
about, 11 answering to the Latin jacto : whereas plnTo) corresponds 
merely to jar.io. So, gtev-u^u, " I groan deeply and long; 11 but gtevu 
merely "I groan: 11 alr-ifa, " I beg earnestly, 11 " I solicit alms but 
aiT-EG), " I ask. 11 

4. Verbs in -eu and -evu are formed from substantives and adjec- 
tives of all declensions, and express regularly an intransitive idea, 
such as the being in a certain state, the filling a certain office, &c. 
Sometimes, however, they are transitive also. When the stem- 
word whence they come ends in -ec (as is the case with adjectives 
in -rjg, -ec), this -ec falls away ; and when the stem-word ends in -sv> 
this ev is rejected before the other -ev which is appended in the pro- 



500 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



cess of verbal formation. Thus, (J>la-eg>, " I am a friend," "Hove" 
(from <I>laoc) : arvx-tu, " / am unfortunate" (from aruxve, stem 
drvxEg) : Evdatfiov-EO), " I am happy" " I am fortunate" (from evdai- 
fiuv, stem evdaifiov) : dyop-svo, " I harangue" (from dyopd) : fiaaik- 
evu, " I am a king" " I reign" (from ftaGLAEvc). 

5. Verbs in -6g>, which come mostly from substantives and ad- 
jectives of the second declension ; verbs in -alvu, which come regu- 
larly from adjectives, seldom from substantives ; verbs in -vvu, 
which are formed from adjectives only, have all regularly a factitive 
meaning, that is, they signify to make, produce, bring about, the 
state, condition, idea, &c, indicated by the verbal root ; as, xpvg-6g>, 
" I make golden" " I gild" (from XP V(J °C » 44 g°W) dovA-oa), " I make 
a slave," "I enslave" (from dovloe, "a slave") : AEVK-alvco, "7 make 
white" (from aevkoc, "white"): f3apvvo), " I load heavily" (from j3apvc, 
" heavy"). To this same head belong many of those in ; as, 
dyv-lfa, 44 I make pure" (from dyvog) : ttaovt-I^o), " I enrich" (from 
ttaovtoc, 44 riches"), &e. 

6. Verbs in -osiu are formed from the future of other verbs, and 
have a desiderative meaning ; as, yEAa-GEto, " I want to laugh" (from 
yeA-dco, fut. yeA-dcw, " I laugh") : tcoae[j.i-oe'm*), 44 1 am desirous of 
making war" (from ttoaeh^io, fut. ttoa£{j.-1(tg), " I make war"): Spa- 
geio), 44 1 desire or want to do" (from dp-do, fut. dpd-au, "I do"), &c. 

7. Another class of desideratives is formed in -did or -idu, derived 
properly from substantives ; as, -&avar-d(o, 44 Ilong for death:" crpa- 
TTjy-ido, 44 1 desire to be a leader :" and then also from verbs, by form- 
ing these first into substantives ; as, uvio/iat (cjvrjr^c), covnT-idu, "I 
wish to purchase :" KAalo (KAavaig), KAavff-tdo), 44 I wish to weep." 

2. Substantives. 
Substantives are derived from verbs, substantives, and adjectives, 
and denote, 

1. A concrete idea, that is, the idea of an agent or actor; and the 
terminations under this head are as follows : 

(a.) Masculine -evc (gen. -sue), feminine -eia or -tooa ; as, 
LEp-evg, 44 a priest :" iip-Eid, 44 a priestess :" fiaoiA-Evc, 44 a king 
(iaoiA-ioaa, 11 a queen." 

(/?.) Masculine -ttjc (gen. -ov), -rnp, -rop, feminine -rpta, -rpig, 
-rig, and -ic (gen. -tdoc), -reipa ; as, avAij-rrjc and avAn-r^p, "a 
flute-player :" Koofirj-Tctp, 44 one who marshals an army :" avArj-Tpia 
and avAij-rptg, 44 a female flute-player :" Koafirj-rpia, "a female 
magistrate :" ttoaC-ttjc, 44 a citizen :" noAi-Tie, 44 a female citi- 
zen" <fec. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



501 



(y.) Masculine -wv, feminine -aiva ; as, depdrr-ov, "a man 
servant:" depdn-aiva, il a female servant.'''' 

(6.) Masculine -tjg, feminine -mg and -oivn ; as, 6u6g, "a 
male slave:" Sucoig, "a female slave:" rjpiog, "a hero:" Tjpcoivn, 
"a heroine." 

(e.) Termination in -og (gen. -ov), occurring only seldom, and 
only from verbs where the principle of cognation operates in 
deriving ; as, noiin-og, from nEjin-u : rpo<p-6g, from roe^-w, &c. 

2. An abstract idea, that is, the abstract idea of activity. 

From verbs : 

(a.) Terminations in -ctg (gen. -aeug) and -eta, involving a 
transitive idea, and denoting the action itself or the manner of 
action; as, Trpagig, "a doing" answering to the Latin actio, 
from npaTTG) : bv6(j,a-<uc and bvofia-cia, "a naming" from bvo- 
[id^co, &c. 

(/?.) Termination in -fiog (gen. -ov), involving an intransitive 
idea ; as, bdvp-fiog, "lamentation," from bdvpouai. 

(y.) Termination in -ua, denoting the result or effect of an 
action ; as, irpdyfia, " a thing done" (Latin factum) : fivijua, " a 
memorial, a thing remembered," &c. 

(6.) Terminations in -fin, -n, -a, and (from verbs in -evu) -eta, 
indicating sometimes the transitive relation, sometimes the 
working or operation of the same ; as, rofxri, " a cut," from reuvu : 
aotdrj, "a song," from detdu : <pdopd, " destruction," from (ftdelpo): 
natdeia, "instruction," "education," from izaidevu. 

(e.) Terminations in -oc (gen. -ov), -roc (gen. -tov), and -og 
(gen. -ovc), indicating, for the most part, the intransitive rela- 
tion ; sometimes, also, the transitive ; and sometimes, again, 
the operation of the same ; as, 16y-oc, " speech," from Xeyu : 
kokv-toc, "a howl," from kukvo : nfjd-oe, "care," &c. 
From adjectives : 

(a.) Termination in -id, from adjectives in -oc, and from 
some others, also, of the third declension : as, oofy-id, " wis- 
dom," from o*o<j>6c : evdaifiov-td, " good fortune " from evdai/iuv, 
gen. evdalfiov-og. 

(J3.) Termination in -id, from adjectives in -rig and -ovg, 
whose stem ends in e and o, with which stem- vowels the t of 
the termination -id unites to form the diphthongs u and oi, so 
that the full termination becomes -eid, -oid ; as, d^d-nd, 
" truth," from aXnd-fje, gen. aXnOs-oe : evv-oia, " good- will," from 
evv-ovc, gen. tvv-oov. 

(y.) Termination in -gvvtj, from adjectives in -uv (gen. ovog) 



502 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



and -oc ; as, Gutypo-cvvn, " self-control, 11 from G6<j>p-ov, gen. 
<f>pov-oc : ducaio-Gvvn, "right conduct" from dtKatoc. 

(6.) Termination in -tvc, gen. -ttjtoc, from adjectives in -of 
and -ve ; as, [go-tvc, gen. Igo-ttjtoc, "equality" from foof : 
7Taxv-Tnc, "thickness, 11 from 7ra^-t;f. 

(e.) Termination in -of, gen. -eof, contracted -ovf, from ad- 
jectives in -vc and -rjc, and such as in the comparative take the 
forms in -lav, and, in the superlative, in -lgtoc ; as, ra^of, to, 
gen. t&xovc, " swiftness ," from ra^vf : ipevdoc, to, "a falsehood, 11 
from tievdrjc : alcxoc, to, " disgrace,' 1 from aio^pdf, atGx'tcjv. 

(f.) Termination in -af, gen. -ddoe, occurring only in abstract 
numeral substantives; as, tj fiovdc, "unity: 11 dvdc, "duality, 11 
&c. {Vid. page 196.) 
From substantives alone are formed the following classes of 
words : 

Gentile terms, that is, personal appellations derived from the name 
of one's country, and ending in -eve (fem. -ic, gen. -idoc), -itvc (fern. 
-trie), -drnc (fern, -arte), -tjtvc, -uttjc ; as, Aupt-eve, Awp-lc, j£v6ap- 

LTrjg, 2,v6ap-LTic, ^TtapTL-aTTjc, &c. 
Patronymics. {Vid. page 130.) 

Diminutives (frequently accompanied with the notion of contempt). 
These end in, 1. -iov, which is the most usual termination. 2. -dpiov 
(-ugwv). 3. -vXIlov, -vTCkig : -vdpiov, -ixptov (-d(j>tov). 4. 4c (gen. -ido$ 
and -tdoc), -tdiov (arising from -ic). 5. -Igkoc, -lgktj {-lgklov, -tx^Vi 
-ixviov). 6. -idevc (only of the young of animals). Thus, jueipdn-iov 9 
" a lad, 11 " a youngster, 11 from fietpai;, gen. fte'ipaK-og : i:aid-tov, " a 
little child, 11 from natc, gen. naid-oc : naid-dpiov, the same : nop-daiov, 
"a little girl 11 (only occurring here for Kopdpiov, on account of the p 
that precedes), from nopa, " a girl : 11 duavd-vll'ic, from aKavdtc, " a 
thistle finch vna-vdptov, " a little island, 11 from vrjcoe, " an island 
^o)V(p-iov, " a little animal, 11 from fwov : irivaK-tc, " a small tablet, 11 from 
nival; : dfia^-tg, "a small wagon, 11 from a/uaga : vna-idiov, "a small 
island 11 from vfjGOc : Kped-dtov (for tcpeatdiov, KpeaSiov), "a piece of 
flesh, 11 from /cp^af : veav-lGKoc., veav-'iGKn, " a young man, 11 " a young 
woman, 11 from veavtaq : kotvX-lgklov, " a very small cup or measure 11 
(seldom occurring), from kotvIv : kvI-lxvlov, " a small cup 11 from 
kvKl% : hay-tdevc, " a young hare, 11 from layuc, " a hare aeT-idevc, 
" a young eagle, 11 from deToc, " an eagle. 11 

Words indicative of place, ending, I. in -lov (in connection with 
the preceding vowel -aiov, -eiov, &ov) and -uov, which indicate the 
abode or place of employment of the person denoted by the stem- 
word, or else a place consecrated to some god or hero ; as, kpyac- 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



503 



rrjp-iov, " a workshop" from hpyaarrip, " a workman" " an artificer 
decjiiwTTjp-Lov, " a prison" from dEGfiuTijc, " a prisoner :" diKaar^pcov, 
" a court of justice" from diKaorrjc, " a judge," "a dicast :" Kovp-elov, 
"a barber's shop" from tcovpevc, gen. Kovpi-uc, "a barber :" Ona-slov, 
" a temple of Theseus" from Qnaevc, gen. Qr/ve-uc : 'Adrjvaiov, " a 
temple of Minerva :" Movaelov, " a temple of the Muses." Sometimes, 
however, the ending -rrjpiov, above referred to, is applied to vessels ; 
as, TroTijpLov, " a drinking- cup ;" and in Xen., Mem. Socr., iv., 3, 3, it 
is even used in speaking of time ; as, dvanavrrjpwv, " a time for 
taking repose" — 2. Ending in -6v (gen. -£>voc), seldom -ecov, and 
-uvid, to denote the abode, or accustomed place of persons or ani- 
mals, or a spot filled with natural productions, &c. ; as, avdp£>v, " the 
apartment of a male :" yvvaiftuv, " a woman's apartment :" imzuv, "a 
stable :" fiodwv and fiodovid, " a garden of roses," " a rose-bed" 

Words denoting instruments, means, &c, ending in -rpov and -rpa ; 
as, KOGfin-rpov, "an instrument for cleaning, a brush, broom," &c. : 
Aovrpdv, "a bath:" t-varpa, " a bath-scraper" (Latin strigilis): didan- 
Tpov, "a fee for teaching :" la-rpov, " a physician's fee." The termi- 
nation -rpa also occurs as an indication of place ; as, opxha-Tpa, 
" the dancing-place for the chorus" instead of bpxna-Tqpiov. 

3. Adjectives. 

Adjectives are formed from verbs, substantives, and other adjec- 
tives. 

1. From verbs, and with the following endings : 

(a.) Ending in -lkoc, rj, ov, and -Lfioc, n, ov, or -i/noc, ov, as also 
•oifiog, ov. These all denote a fitness and capability for any 
thing; and, moreover, those in -ikoc are used in a transitive, 
those in -ipoc as well in a transitive as a passive signification ; 
as, rjyefiov-iKoc, " fit for command:" KvSepvnr-iKoc, "fit for pilot- 
ing :" aofiar-iKoc, "adapted to the body" "corporeal :" Tpby-ipLOC, 
"nutritive:" id-aijuoc, "curable." — Sometimes, however, these 
adjectives appear either without such peculiarity of meaning, 
or else having it partially obscured ; as, irarp-LKoe, " hereditary :" 
nevd-ifioc, " mournful," &c. 

(/?.) Ending in -voc, rj, 6v, with intransitive or passive signifi- 
cation ; as, dei-voc, "formidable " "fearful" (AEIS2) : ae/Lt-voc, 
" revered," " holy" (aeSofiai) : arvy-voc, " hateful," " hated" 
(STTrfl): tzoOel-voc, "longed for," "desired" (nodeo)). 

(y.) Ending in -Tide, with transitive signification ; -uloc, tj, ov, 
and (from verbs in -da>) -nhoc, rj, ov, with transitive and intransi- 
tive signification; as, det-hoc, "timid," " cjwardly :" Hnay-%og 



504 



FORMATION OF WORDS, 



(for mnTiay-hog), from £/c7r/ta7<7<xy, "terrible:" <j>£tS-u?i6g, "spar- 
ing:"'' Giy-nTiog, "silent," "quiet:" dixar-rfkog, "deceitful." 

(6.) Ending in -dpog, d, 6v (from verbs in -do and -atvu), with 
intransitive signification ; as, ^a^l-a/ooc, " slackened :" fii-apog, 
" unclean" 

(e.) Ending in -fiwv, -jiov (gen. -povog), with intransitive and 
intensive signification ; as, /jtvrj-fiwv, "mindful" "having a good 
memory :" vorj-fiuv, " thoughtful," "wise" 

(f.) Ending in -dg (gen. -adoc), as well with transitive as in- 
transitive signification ; as, <j>op-dg, "fruitful" (ftpu) : Spofi-dg, 
" running" (APEM12) : Tioy-dg, " chosen" (kiyu). 

(j/.) Ending in -rog, -ttj, -rbv, and -riog, -teo, -teov, and being 
verbal adjectives. Those in -rog indicate either an activity 
brought to a close ; as, fan-Tog, " said," from Tiiyo, or else the 
idea of possibility ; and this is their ordinary meaning ; as, 
opa-rog, " visible." Most of these follow in their formation the 
perfect passive, or, as it is more correctly called, perfect middle, 
whether actually existing or merely presupposed to exist ; as, 



fiov2,ev~u, 


(3e'6ov%ev-rai, 


fiovXev-rdc, -riog f 


Tlftd-0), 


TE-TL[LT]-TaL, 


TlflV-TOC, 


<j>opd-cj, 


7re-<l>u)pa-Tai, 


<pupa-Teoc, 




isE-fyikn-rai, 


fyikn-Tog, 




Kt-XV-TCLL, 


XV-toc, 




Tze-nTieK-Tai, 


TrXeK-roc, -t4o£ 9 


2.£y-u, 


Tii^eK-rai, 


7i£K-TOC, 




l-oraX-rai, 


araX-riog^ 


TELV-D (TA-Q), 


Te-ru-rat, 


ra-reoc, 


dC-da-pi (AO-fl), 


de-do-Tai, 


do-roc, -riog. 



Very many verbal adjectives, however follow the analogy of 
other verbal forms, not according to any fixed law, but merely 
as seemed most pleasing to the Grecian ear. Thus, many fol- 
low the first aorist passive ; as, alp-iu, ype-d^nv, aipE-rog : nav-o, 
k-nav-G-dnv, Trav-cr-rog, -riog : xP^"°f laL i e-XPV-g-6v v i XPV-^-Tog, 
-teqc, &e. — Some follow the form of the second aorist ; as, £#<j, 
1-gxe-tov, ox £ - T °C alpeo), elhe-rov, eXe-roc. : tl6t}(u, I-Oe-tov, 
t6c, -rkog. — Some, again, follow the present active ; as, fzivo), 
fjLiv-ETov, fiev-eToc, -teqc : £1(11, l-TOv, i-riog : dvvafiai, dvvarog : 
^Tjjit, <j>a-Tov, <j>a-Tog. 
2. From substantives and adjectives : 

The ending -tog not only appears of itself, but also combines 
with the preceding stem-vowel, and forms the terminations 
-aiog, -Eiog, -oiog, -yog, -viog ; and, in like manner, the ending 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



505 



-ucog, if a v precedes, changes to -tcog, and if an t precedes, 
changes to -atcog. The adjectives thus formed embrace a wide 
circuit of meanings ; in general, however, they indicate that 
which proceeds from, and is more or less connected with, an 
object ; as, ovpdv-tog, " heavenly :" Kaddp-tog, " cleanly" (but 
tcadapoc, "pure" "clean"): eXsvdep-ioc, "liberal" (but kTiEvdepog, 
"free"): ayop-alog, "of ox belonging to the market-place :" tiepeiog, 
" of or belonging to summer :" aldotog, rjp&og, TpiTtrjx-viog, dovh- 
iKog, S-nAv-Kog, fiavta-Kog. 
3. From substantives alone : 

(a.) Ending in -eioc, commonly expressing an origin or source; 
as, xr/v-eiog, f36-£iog, "cKiz-Etog, jU^A-Etog, &C, "consisting of, or 
derived from, geese, oxen, horses, sheep," &c. Others denote 
rather an agreement with, or resemblance to, a thing ; as, dv- 
dp-slog, "becoming a man:" yvvatK-elog, "effeminate," or " be- 
coming a, woman." 

(/?.) Ending in -eog, contracted -ov$, and in -ivog, express the 
material out of which any thing is made ; as, xpvv-sog (xpvcr-ovg), 
"made of gold :" Xtv-eog (Aiv-ovg), "made of linen:" %v"k-lvog, 
" wooden :" aavr-Xvog, " of leather," " leathern" 

(y.) Ending in -Ivog, seldom -Ivog, from substantives, denoting 
a particular time ; and also fullness ; as, ecmep-cvog, " in the 
evening :" x^ e(J ~^ v ^ c i " of or belonging to yesterday :" bpeivog, 
61 mountainous," &c. 

((5.) Ending in -etg, gen. -evroc (always with a vowel pre- 
ceding, namely, n, if derived from words of the first declen- 
sion ; and o, if from words of the other declensions) ; -pog, -epog, 
-npog, -akeog, and all denoting more or less of fullness ; as, vlt)- 
eig, " woody :" dfiizeTio-eig, "full of vines :" irvpo-etg, "fiery :" 
voG-epog and voa-npog, " sickly :" pofi-aheog, "powerful," "strong " 
— Exceptions to adjectives in -eig are devSpfjetg, from devdpov, 
and x a P' l - uc i f rom X ( ' c P l G- — Moreover, the Epic writers, instead 
of -oeig, have -coeig, when required by the verse ; as, Knr-uetg, 
liTueig, &c. 

(e.) Ending in -d)Sng, neuter -tideg (arising from o-Eidijg, and 
this derived from eldog, "likeness"), and expressing, 1. A re- 
semblance; as, G(j>nK-o)6ng, "warlike :" (ploy-udng, " shining like 
fire." Often, however, 2. A fullness; as, dvde/z-udng, "flowery:" 
noi-udng, "grassy." 

3. Adverbs. 

Adverbs are formed from verbs, substantives, adjectives, adverbs, 

U u 



506 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



and pronouns. — From verbs alone are formed those ending in -Sipr, 
or, when the stem- word has the cognate o, in -ddnv. These denote 
a way, manner, &c. ; as, Kpv6-drjv, "secretly," from KpvirTu: ypa$- 
dnv, " in a grazing or scraping manner," from ypd(J>u : crnop-ddnv, "in 
a scattered manner," from aneipu, &c. 

From verbs and substantives, with the endings -66v or -adov, and 
-ndov (principally, however, from substantives), and having the same 
force with the preceding. — Others, however, likewise ending in -66v, 
and derived from substantives alone, refer merely to the outward 
form, &c. Thus, we have of the first class, dva^av-Sov, "openly," 
from avcKpaLvu : diaKpi-dov, "separately," from dtaKptvu : and of the 
second class, porpv-dov, " cluster-like" from fibrpv : Dia-dov, " in 
troops :" dyeXn-Sov, "in droves," &c. 

From substantives, pronouns, and adverbs are formed adverbial 
terms to denote rest in a place, motion to a place, and motion from, 
by means of the terminations &i, 01, at, ds, ae, -de, -&ev, &c. These 
have already been considered. Consult page 388. 

For the formation of adverbs from adjectives, consult page 387. 

II. COMPOSITION. 

1. Every compound word consists of two words, one of which 
serves to determine or define the other more closely ; and the de- 
termining or defining word regularly comes before the one deter- 
mined or defined ; as, vav-fiaxta, "a ship-fight," or " naval battle." 

2. It is only seldom, and mostly in poetic terms, that the deter- 
mining word takes the second place in the compound ; as, deicidal- 
fio)v (i. e., deloac rove daipovac) : dafcedvfioc, " heart gnawing ;" in 
which latter case, as in many others, we invert the order in trans- 
lating. 

3. The verb can only be compounded with prepositions, but the 
substantive and adjective either with other substantives and adjec- 
tives, or with prepositions, or with separable or inseparable adverbs 
and prefixes ; as, ou[iaTO-tyv?.a%, ydv-%6yoc, nepl-aracric, Sid-XevKOc, 
ev-Tvxvc, dv-atTLoc. — The adverb is only compounded with preposi- 
tions ; as, nepL-GTadov. 

Remark. Separable adverbs are such as are employed both 
out of composition as well as in it ; as, ev, ir'Xrjv, dfxa, dyxt, upn, 
&c. — Inseparable adverbs and prefixes, on the other hand, are 
such as are used in composition alone ; as, qui-, 6vg-, the priva- 
tive a, &c. 

4. When the first part of a compound is a verb, the pure, and, at 
times, also the strengthened verbal stem, remains unaltered, if the 



FORMATION OP WORDS. 



507 



following word begins with a vowel ; as, <jtep-avyrjg, iruB-apxtlv \ 01 
else there is appended to the verbal stem an end-vowel, e, o, or i ; 
or one of the following combinations : ol, eg, eat, ao, when the fol- 
lowing word begins with a consonant ; or (t, also, when it begins 
with a vowel ; as, 6aK-e-dv[iog, Xltt-o-t&ktt]^ and XeiTr-o-TaKTiig, repir- 
i-Kepavvog, kyep-ct-yehcjg, ^ep-eo-6Log ) Taft-eai-xpug, &?iK' eol-TrenXog, 
fii^o6dp6apog (= fiiy-ao-dapSapog), piifjaantg (= f)liT-<j~aomc), ttXtjZltt- 
nog (— TzTiTiy-G-LTrKog). 

5. When the first part of the compound is a substantive or adjec- 
tive, the declension-stem of the substantive regularly remains unal- 
tered ; for example, (1st decl.) viKrj-(t>6pog, ayopa-v6fj.og : (2d decl.) 
?ioyo-ypa<f>og, io-7}fiepog (with elision), KaKOvpyog (with crasis), Xayco- 
66Xog : (3d decl.) acry-vo/iog, i)dv-%6yog, fiov-tyopSog, vav-fiaxta> nvp-Qo- 
poe, fieXay-xoh'ia, irav-ijyvpig.— In some words the vowel o is inserted 
after the stem ; as, oufxaT-o-tyvlai;, <pvat-o-X6yog, dadovxog (crasis for 
dad-o-exog). — With neuters in -oe, gen. -eog, the s before the o is eli- 
ded ; as, t;t<j>-o-(j>6pog : or else the declension-stem in eg is retained ; 
as, Telea-tyopag : and so, likewise, in the case of other neuters ; as, 
Kepag-SoXog, <pug-(j>6pog. 

Remark 1. Often, however, with words of the first declen- 
sion, the vowel o takes the place of the final vowel of the de- 
clension-stem ; as, 6iK-o-ypd(j)og (from 6Un), Tioyx-o-^opog. And 
again, the ending rj or a appears in the case of words of the 
second and third declensions ; as, davarn-fyopog, dairtSn-^opog. 
— Neuters in og (genitive eog, plural rj) fluctuate frequently be- 
tween o and 7] ; as, ^L(f>o-(p6pog and tjctyrj-Qopog, GKevo-(p6pog and 

(TK£VT)-<f)6pOg. 

Remark 2. With some words of the third declension, more 
rarely of the first and second, the vowel i is appended to the 
pure verbal stem ; as, Trvp-i-Tirvovg, aly-L-Borng, [ivar-i-noTiog, &c. 
— In many words a euphonic a (ai) is inserted ; as, fj.oyo-G-76- 
nog, &eo-G-exftpca (along with the regular fieoexOpta), vav-ai-no* 
pog, &c. 

6. As regards the second part of the compound, it is to be remark- 
ed that words beginning with a, e, o, regularly change these, in com- 
position, into ij and o> ; as, evqvefiog, from dvefiog : crpaTT/yog, from 
uyo) : EVTjvup, from avfjp : dvorj perpog, from kpETfiog : dvaf/Xarog, from 
kXavvo : ava)dE?i7]g, from Q(pe?iog : avuvvfzog, from ovo/ua, &c. 

7. As regards the ending of compound words, the following may 
be remarked : 

1. In the case of Verbs.— The Greek language, as has already 
been remarked, can only compound a verb with prepositions. 



50S 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



Whenever, therefore, a verb is to be joined with any part of 
speech, this can never be done directly, but recourse must be 
had to some intermediate form, either actually existing, or sup- 
posed, for this purpose, to exist ; to which form a verbal ending 
is then affixed, usually -eo>. Thus, from Imrovg Tpefyeiv we can 
not form ImroTpetieiv ; but, by means of the compound substan- 
tive imroTpo^og, we obtain the form iTnroTpotyiu. In like manner, 
we get -&eoce6eo) from -&eooe6rjg, vavpaxeu from vavfidxog, evrv- 
%£(*) from evrvxvg, &c. 

2. Where the second part of the compound word is a noun; 
and hence arise the two following cases : 

1. The second part of the compound is derived from a verb, 
and takes the following endings : 

(a.) Most frequently -og, -ov ; as, dnporpofyog , " nurturing wild 
animals ;" but tinpoTpotyog, " nurtured by wild creatures." 

(/?.) Ending in -ng {-rng), or -ag (gen. ov), -np (-rnp), -rop, regu- 
larly with a substantival force, and in a transitive sense ; as, 
evepyerng, " a benefactor :" vofiodeTng, " a law-giver ;" fivponu'kng, 
6pvi6o6r/pag, iraidoTierop. 

(y.) Ending in -i]g, -eg, regularly with a passive or intransi- 
tive signification ; as, #eo<pLlr)g, " beloved by God :" Ev^iadrig, 
tl docile;" evnpenrjg, " becoming" &c. 

(6.) Ending in g (£) ; as, ^evdo/zaprvg (from MAPTTQ), vopo- 

2. Or the second part of the compound is a substantive. 

(a.) Both parts of the compound stand in an attributive rela- 
tion to each other, since the first contains a nearer and closer 
definition of the latter. The substantive remains unaltered. 
The first part admits of being an adverb or preposition, some- 
times also a substantive or adjective ; as, d/uodovhog, " a fellow- 
slave :" fiovTiifiog, " raging hunger :" aKponolig, " a citadel." 

(/?.) Both parts of the compound stand in an objective rela- 
tion to each other, since the latter indicates the object of the 
former. This class comprehends a large number of adjectives, 
the first part of which consists of either a verb, or, though more 
rarely, of an adjective, or of a separable or inseparable adverb, 
or of a preposition used as an adverb ; as, deioidalp-uv, equiva- 
lent to 6 rovg Saluovag detoag, " superstitious," " one who fears the 
gods :" eTuxcupeKaicog, equivalent to 6 rolg nanolg kmxa'ipwv, " re- 
joicing in another's ills .*" KanoSal^uv, equivalent to 6 nanbv dai- 
fj.ova &XUV, " unfortunate," &c. In these examples the form of 
the substantive remains unaltered, since the substantive pos- 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



509 



sesses a form that does not contradict the adjective form for 
the masculine or feminine. When, however, this is not the case, 
then the substantive takes a corresponding adjective ending ; 
namely, -og (gen. -ov), -og (gen. -w), -rjg (gen. -ovg), -ig (gen. -idog ), 
-tjv, and (when it ends in v) g ; as, cvvdenrvog (from deinvov) : 
svSvdiKog (from 6lkt]) : urtftog (from rifif/) : dexvpepoc (from i/fie- 
pa) : ^ikoxpriyLaroq (from XPW a ^ plural ^p^/zara) : evyeog (from 
yfj) : Tietirovecog (from vavg ) : avcxpehr/g (from ofeXog) : avaknig 
(from akicr}) : axpqfiov : adaKpvg, gen. -uof (da/cpv). 

3. When the second part of the compound is an adjective. 

Here the adjective retains its form, except that those in vg 
commonly take the ending The first part of the compound 
consists of either a substantive or an adverb; as, aarvyurov^ 
izavootyog, avSfioiog, TrpSSyTiog, arjdrjg (from qdvg), 7ro&5/c7?$ (from 
ioKvg). 

Uu2 



510 



PROSODY. 



PROSODY. 1 



L Prosody (irpogudia), in its common acceptation at the present 
day, treats of the quantity of syllables, or the time occupied in pro- 
nouncing them. 

2. In the ancient grammarians, irpocudia applies also to accent 
and breathings. 

3. The vowels e and o are short by nature; t} and w are long by 
nature ; and a, t, i>, are termed doubtful. 

4. When a vowel is said to be short by nature, the meaning is, 
that it is short by its natural pronunciation, being equivalent merely 
to one short time. On the other hand, a vowel long by nature is 
long by its natural pronunciation, being equal to two short times. 
Thus, n is equivalent to ee, and o to oo. 

5. Hence it follows that the short vowel e has n for its corre- 
sponding long one ; and the short vowel o, in like manner, has « 
for its long. But in the case of a, t, v, there is no distinct mark or 
letter by which the eye can tell at the instant whether these vowels 
are long or short, and hence they are called doubtful 

6. It must be carefully borne in mind, however, that, by actual 
usage, every syllable in any particular case always has a definite 
quantity, either long or short ; and that, when we speak of doubtful 
syllables, we do not mean that they have any thing doubtful in their 
nature, or wavering between long and short as regards the same 
word ; but only that they have no corresponding long or short marks 
by which the eye can detect their quantity at a glance. 

7. The quantity of syllables is determined by various methods : 

I. POSITION. 

1. A short or doubtful vowel before two consonants or a double 
letter is almost always long ; as, creXku, o/ifia, dvrdyu, Tpditl^a, 
a/idtja, diipa. 

2. These two consonants may belong to the same word with the 
vowel ; as, eanepoe ; or one of them may belong to the same word, 
and the other to the succeeding word ; as, tuv dfioOev ye, $ea -&vya- 



1. For a more enlarged view of this subject, consult the author's larger work on 
Greek Prosody. 



ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 



51! 



rep Awe : or both may be found at the beginning of the following 
word ; as, avdpd d-vrjrbv eovra. 

3. In scanning the dramatic writers, the following exceptions to 
this rule of position must be carefully noted : 

I. A short vowel before a soft mute (71-, /c, r), or an aspirate 
(0> Xi #) followed by a liquid, is much rather left short than 
lengthened by the Attic poets. 

II. A short vowel before a middle mute (/?, y, 6), followed by 
p, is short in the comic writers, but in tragedy is mostly long. 

III. A short vowel before a middle mute, followed by any 
liquid except p, is almost always long. In Euripides such syl- 
lables are always long ; but in JEschylus, Sophocles, and Aris- 
tophanes, they are sometimes short. 

IV. The tragic writers occasionally leave a vowel short be- 
fore the two liquids fiv. 

4. The Epic writers, such as Homer, &c, mostly avoid the short- 
ening of syllables before a mute and liquid, and employ it chiefly 
when the word can not in any other manner be adapted to the 
measure. Thus, in the case of such forms as ZanvvBog, Zeheia, 
Zfcafiavdpoc, GKETzapvov, &c, a preceding short vowel in another 
word remains short, notwithstanding the double consonant Z and 
the two mutes ok following immediately after. 

5. To remove these shortenings, Payne Knight writes AdKvv6og y 
AeXeia, Kdfiavdpoc, &c. ; and he refers, in support of his opinion, to 
the coins of Zancle (Messana) of the seventh century B.C., which 
give the name of the place in the old form AANKAH. In confirma- 
tion of this view might also be cited the ovxl ftdpaydov of Asclepi- 
ades. (Antkol. Palat., vol. ii., p. 501.) 

II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 

1. One vowel before another or before a diphthong is generally 
short, unless lengthened by poetic license or some other peculiar 
cause ; as, dyTidog, Tjepiog. 

2. But the Greek poets, especially the Epic, often lengthen vowels, 
even when another follows, by the aid of the arsis ; and this takes 
place not only in doubtful vowels, but also in those which are nat- 
urally short. 

3. By arsis, which is called by some ccesura, is meant the stress 
of the voice that is brought to bear upon a particular syllable in each 
foot during the reciting of a line. In the dactyl it falls on the first 
syllable ; in the iambus, on the last ; and in the trochee, again, on 
the first, its place being regulated by the long syllable. 



512 



CONTRACTION. 



4. The spondee leaves the place of the arsis undetermined ; and 
this becomes settled only by the nature of the verse in which the 
spondee is employed. Thus, in dactylic and trochaic measure, the 
arsis falls on the first syllable of the spondee ; but in iambic on the 
last. 

5. The following are instances of lengthening by arsis. Thus, 
oieg (Od., ix., 425) ; Kara hiirdpqv (II., vi., 64) ; de fitltrjv (II , XX., 
322), &c. 

6. In the Epic writers, long vowels and diphthongs are mostly 
short at the end of words when the next word begins with a vowel ; 
as, rjfjLevrj kv fiivdeooiv (II. , i., 358); afL(j>ti outig (lb., 23); 6ex6at 
unoLva (lb., 57). 4 

Remark. The principle on which this depends is easily ex- 
plained. The 7i in Tjfievr/, for example, is equal to ee, and one 
of these epsilons being supposed to be elided before the initial 
vowel of the following word, the other epsilon remains, of course, 
short by nature. In other words, the final vowel of yfievrj loses, 
as it were, a portion of its natural length by the sinking of the 
voice and by the vowel immediately following it. So the w in 
afj,(j)G) is equivalent to two omicrons, one of which it loses before 
the following vowel, while the other remains short. In like 
manner, the diphthong at in Sex^aL is supposed to lose a vowel. 

7. On the contrary, the long vowel retains its natural measure 
when it falls in the arsis of the foot. The following Homeric verse 
contains examples of both kinds : 

'HfjiETepfi hi olk&, kv "Ap-yei, TrjTiodi Ttarprjg. (II., i., 30.) 

Remark. Here, after one of the vowels has been supposed to 
be elided, and a single short vowel remains, this latter, being in 
the arsis of the foot, receives the stress of the voice, and be- 
comes long again. Thus, in the foot pti evX, the syllable pa) is 
in the arsis, and hence, though one of the omicrons composing 
the omega is supposed to be cut off before the initial vowel of 
hvi, and only a single omicron remains, that omicron is never- 
theless lengthened by the stress of the voice falling upon it. 
On the other hand, in the foot ocku ev, the omega is not in the 
arsis, and hence, after this vowel has lost one of its component 
omicrons before the next word, there is no stress of the voice 
upon the other omicron, and therefore it remains short. 

III. CONTRACTION. 
1. All contracted syllables are long; as, Ipog for lepog ; btylg for 
6$ieg, &c. 



DIALECT COMPOSITION. 



513 



2. Two vowels forming two syllables are frequency contracted 
into one in poetry; as in ^pww (II. , i., 15), where forms a sin- 
gle syllable. This is frequent in the dramatic writers, where the 
syllables are in different Words, and is called synizesis ; as, firj eldevat 
(Hippol., 1331), where the rj and et are to be pronounced as one 
syllable ; # evyevetav (Eurip., Electr., 1104). 

IV. DIALECT. 

L The Doric a is long ; as, <f>d{id, yvvd, klveid. And so is the a 
in the uncontracted form ao of the genitive ; as, 'Arpetddo. 

2. The ^Eolic a is short ; as, vv/i^d, 7ro^ra, Ko/ifjrd. 

3. In the Ionic dialect a is generally short in the penult of the 
perfect tenses, such as yiyda ; and always short in the third person 
plural of the passive in drat and dro ; as, edrai, SeSfi^dro. 

4. The Ionic third person plural in act is always long ; as, edat, 
TiOedcn. 

5. The Ionic writers double the a and some other consonants at 
pleasure ; a license which the Attic poets never used, either in 
tragedy or comedy. Thus, in Homer, we have oTrjdeaciv for arrj- 
Bsglv ; OTCTzorepog for onorepog, &c. 

V. DERIVATION. 

1. Derivatives for the most part follow the quantity of the words 
from which they are derived ; as, vlKau, from vlnrj ; Tifcda), from tl/llt}. 

2. But many derivatives from verbs differ in quantity from the 
present tenses of these verbs, as being immediately formed from the 
verbal stem with a short vowel. Thus, Kpiryg and rcpicig, though 
the verb be Kplvo. In the same way, diarpUr] and naparpvxv, though 
the verbs be dtarptSo) and rrapaipdx^- 

VI. COMPOSITION. 

1. Compound words generally follow the quantity of their primi- 
tives ; as, drl/xog, from Tijurj ; fivorrdpcov, from fivg, genitive /uvog and 

TCdpUV. 

2. The privative a is commonly short ; as, aepyog, ds/cuv, ddvfiog, 
but dBdvarog and dudaarog are excepted, and, on account of the num- 
ber of short syllables that follow, and which would make the words 
otherwise difficult to employ in verse, have the initial a always 
long. 

3. The particles 6a, £a, ape, ept, and dvg, are short ; as, ddfoivoc, 
(dBeog, dplde'iKETog, epitcvdyg, dvoarjg. 



514 



INCREASE OF NOUNS. 



VII. INCREASE OF NOUNS. 

1. A in the increment of nouns is generally short ; as, crtijia, arog ; 
Kpiag, arog ; viKTap, dpog ; fiehav, dvog , &c. 

Exceptions. 

1. All increments in avog are long except rdlavog and (i&a- 
vog ; as, Tttav, dvog ; Tiav, avog. 

2. All increments in atcog, from nominatives in af pure, are 
long ; as, ola^ dicog ; fiva%, dtcog ; (pXva^ d/cof, &c. 

3. A is long in the dative plural of nouns, &c, that have a 
long penult in the genitive singular ; as, ytyag, avrog, dot ; rvrpag, 
avrog, dGij &c. But those that are syncopated in the singular 
have the a short ; as, avdpaai, itarpdat y &c. 

2. I is short in the increment of neuter nouns ; as, fi&t, Xrog ; and 
in masculines and feminines which have the genitive in tog, tdog, or 
irog ; as, iroTitg, Xog ; eptg, Xdog ; #a/Hf, Xrog. But dipig^ fiaXSig, aap'tg, 
tcvTjfilg, ctypaylg, and several others, are excepted. 

3. I is long in the increment of masculine and feminine nouns 
which have two terminations in the nominative ; as, defytg or detyiv, 
ivog ; duttg or d/cnV, Ivog. 

4. 1 is also generally long in the increment of monosyllables ; as, 
dlvog : Ig , Ivog : Xtg r TCtrog : excepting, however, ftg, fivog ; and 

A /"f, AXog. 

5. I is also long in nouns in ig, tdog ; ti[>, tnog ; tf, lyog ; and if, 
tKog; as, opvig, tdog; rerrt^ lyog; ftdart^ lyog ("a lash"); <j>olvtt;, 
lnog. Homer, however, has Qprjtfceg always short. 

6. But t is generally short in nouns in if, XBog ; and i?, txog ; as, 
Xepvtifj, tSog ; ftptt;, rpXxog. 

7. T is short in the increment of monosyllables in vg, vog ; as, 
dpvg , dpvog ; fivg, [ivog. 

8. T is also short in the increment of neuters in v ; as, danpv, vog ; 
and in the increment of masculines and feminines in vg and vp ; as, 
veKvg, vog ; iXvg, Vkvog ; txOvg, txOvog ; and also in the neuter noun 
Tzvp y 7Tvp6g. But Sayvg, vdog, and tcufivg, vdog, must be excepted. 

9. T is generally short in the increment of nouns in and vtp ; 
as, ow% , vx°S 5 XaAu^s v6og ; except dotdvtj, vKog ; kokkv^ vyog ; 
KTjpv^ fjicog ; Kfji)^ VKog ; yvip, vnog ; ypvip, vnog ; while BiSpv^ has 
either vKog or VKog. 

10. Nouns of two terminations, in vg and w t have v long in the 
increment ; as, Qopuvg, or Qopuvv, vvog. 



INCREASE OF VERBS. 



515 



VIII. INCREASE OF VERBS. 

1. The quantity of the penult in the present and imperfect re- 
mains the same through all the voices and moods ; as, tcpiva), Etcplvov, 

KplVE, KpCVOlflC, KptVG), KplVELV, KptVCJV, KplVOjUCtl, EKplv6[irjV, KpiVOV, &C. 

2. The quantity of particular penults may in most cases be easily 
ascertained from the root whence they are formed. 

3. Verbs in a£a>, and vfa, are made short in the future ; as, 
apnafa* ugu : vofzl^cj, cgcj : kTlv^cj, kTlvgu. 

4. Verbs in c«, where aw is preceded by a vowel, and all verbs in 
pdu, have the penult of the future long ; as, kdu, edco ; dp&co, dao ; 
Spate, dao). 

5. Verbs in aw, when preceded by a consonant other than p, have 
the penult of the future short ; as, <77raw, glgcj ; ye/law, ac<y. 

6. Liquid verbs, or those ending in Xcj, po, vu, pu, shorten the 
penult of the future, but in the first aorist active they invariably 
take either a long vowel or a diphthong ; as, dallo, tfaAo), edrjla : 
teKKo, te\Q>, ETtCka : <j>aivu, <j>avC), EtyTjva : SapOvvu, dapdvvti, iddpOvva. 

7. Verbs in fa, not proceeding from roots in £u, are made long in 
the future ; as, kvTuu, Zgoj : kovZu, Zgu. But egOlu has the t every 
where short. 

8. Dissyllabic verbs in vu are for the most part long in the future 
and aorists ; as, dvu, Svgu, Idvaa : rpvu t TpvGu, ETpvoa. Except 

TTTVU, TCTVGU, ETCTVGGL I KVU, KVGU, EKVGCL '. and One Or tWO Others. 

9. Polysyllabic verbs in vu, in the same manner, are for the most 
part long in the penult of the future and aorist ; as, lgxvu, Igxvgu, 
LGxvGa : daupvu, daKpvGu, kddfcpvGa. 

10. But polysyllables in vu are for the most part short ; as, dvvu, 
ovvgu : dpvu, dpvGu : d(jjvu, d^VGU. 

11. Verbs in vu, which have lengthened forms in v/u, for the most 
part shorten the doubtful vowel ; as, Selkvvu, eSelkvvov ; (iiyvvu, 
Efiiyvvov. The verbs $vu and 6vu are not exceptions to this rule, 
since they do not furnish complete forms in vp,i, but only in the sec- 
ond aorist. 

12. Polysyllables in vfii have the v every where short, except in 
the singular number of the present tense active, and the third per- 
son plural of the same tense and voice ; as, &vyvv/j,i, frvyvvGt ; but 
fyvyvvfiEV, ^EvyvvTEy fyvyvvvai, &C. 

13. On the other hand, dissyllables in v/lli have the v every where 
long ; as, 6v6t, dvvai, eSvte, &c. 

14. The penult of the second aorist is always short ; as, sda/uov, 
eXddov, EKpvSov, eXlttov. With the single exception of the verb 



516 



DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 



niveau, which commonly retains the long vowel in the penult ; as, 
EirX/jyov, hirlrjyriv. But in compounds usually ErrXaynv : as, e^enTid- 
ynv, KaTEirXayrjv, &c. 

15. The third person plural in act, and the feminine participle in 
aaa, are always long ; as, XeTiolndai, KEKpvQdoi, iordot : Tvipdva, 
ypaipdoa, &c. 

16. The augment, which, in verbs beginning with v or *, consists 
merely in lengthening this vowel, makes, of course, the initial sylla- 
ble of the historical tenses long ; as, iketevg), Iketevov, iKirevaa. 

17. The doubtful vowel in the penult of the perfect active strictly 
follows the measure of the root in the present. Hence the middle 
syllable is short in most forms which have a in the present ; as, 
ypd(j)0), yeypafya : but it fluctuates in those with i and v ; as, rpldu, 
TETpl^a : but f)i7TTG), Epf>t(j)a : and again, Kvnro, iceKvfya : but upvmio, 

K£KpV(j)a. 

18. The second perfect active, with the exception of those which 
have a in the root, and change it into o (as, Tpetpu, trpd^ov, rirpo^a), 
has usually a long vowel in the penult ; as, ayo, " / break,' 1 second 
perfect active edya. So, dvdavu, kdSa : Kpd£u, KE/cpdya : piyeu, ep- 
plya : rpl^o), rerplya : ^plcao), TXE§plna, &e. But Tce<ppdda and some 
others are found short, and, in old forms, the first vowel was short- 
ened by position after rejecting the intermediate consonant : as, pe- 
6aa, yeyda, Ssldia, netyva. 

19. Perfects with what is called the Attic reduplication have 
usually, in polysyllabic verbs, a short vowel in the penult ; as, dXel- 
<f)G), liki{kl^a : bpvGco), bptjpvxa, &c. Still, however, in Ionic poets, 
forms of this kind are occasionally lengthened ; as, eiXrjXovda, vtze- 
fivTjjuvKE (J/., xxii., 491). 

20. When a is inserted in the third person plural of the perfect or 
pluperfect, or of the optative, it is always short ; as, opupsxaro, kek- 
Xidrai, ireiOolaTo, &c. 

21. The reduplication before the root of verbs in jui is short ; as, 
TiOn/LLi, dldupi. 

22. In verbs in fit the a is always short ; as, lordrov, lardiiev, &c. 
Except in the third person plural in d<n, and in the masculine and 
feminine participles ; as, lardai, lards, iardaa. 

IX. DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 
General Rule. A doubtful vowel in the penult or antepenult of 
Greek words is generally short. 

Remark. The exceptions to this rule may be found in the 
author's larger Prosody. 



FINAL SYLLABLES. 



517 



X. FINAL SYLLABLES 

I. Final a is commonly short ; as, rpdne^d, Ivd, ln7r6Td f TdrvQa. 

Exceptions. 

1. Various nouns in cz, enumerated on page 53. 

2. The Doric a for 77 is long ; as, (papa for ^77, and also the 
Doric genitive in a from nominatives in ag and tjg ; as, 'AvvlSdg, 
gen. 'AvvcSd : 'Arpeidyg, gen. 'Arpeidd. 

3. All feminine adjectives in a from masculines in og have 
the a long ; as, ducald, except did, izorvid, Id, \iid. 

4. Duals in a ; as, fiovad : and vocatives from nouns in ag ; 
as, Aiveid: or poetical vocatives of the third declension ; as, 
Aaoddfid, UoAvddfid. 

5. The accusative in ia, from the genitive (third declension) 
in eog ; as, HrjAed, from IlyAiog : paoiAea, from fiaaiAzuq : but, 
in Homeric Greek, Lfy^a, from U^Aijoc : (lacuAf/d, from /focrj- 

6. Nouns in cfa, from verbs in evw ; as, 7rpo<j>7]Tetd, dovAud. 

II. Final av is short ; as, av, ndfindv, Aldv, jieA&v, nolrjedv, ervipav. 

Exceptions. 

1. Masculines in av are long ; as, Ttrdv, waidv. 

2. The neuter adjective ndv : and hence the Attics appear to 
have taken occasion to lengthen here and there the forms com- 
pounded with it ; as, dirdv, eTTiirdv, Tcapdirdv. But TcdjLt7rav and 
irpondv are probably every where decidedly short. 

3. Adverbs in av ; as, Aidv, dydv, irepdv. On the contrary, 
brdv and onoTdv follow the quantity of the simple dv. 

4. Accusatives of the first declension, from a long nomina- 
tive ; as, (pcALdVy from tyiAid : Alvecdv, from A'cve'idg. But the 
accusative in av from a short nominative is short ; as, norvidv, 
from TTorvld : rpdire^dv, from Tpdne^d. 

5. The Doric genitive plural of the first declension in dv, 
formed by contraction, is likewise always long; as, /zeAtav, 
vvfitydv, for iieli&v, vvfi^ibv. So, also, the Doric forms derived 
from those in 77, or produced by contraction ; as, noifidv, IIoGei* 
Sdv, 'AAKfxdv. 

III. Final ap is short ; as, ovdp, veKTdp, [idnap. 

Exceptions. 

1. Monosyllables in ap are long ; as, reap, tpdp. 

2. The adverb yap is properly short ; but before ol and similar 

X x 



518 



FINAL SYLLABLES. 



words it very often occurs long in Epic language, through the 
force of the following breathing. 

IV. Final ag is long ; as, Aivetdg, nag, ifidg, (pi^lag, rvipdg, rj/j,dg. 
Exceptions. 

1. Words of the third declension, not forming the genitive in 
avrog ; as, fieXdg, peyag, Xafindg, o&dg, nipdg, &C. But rd\dg 
has the final syllable long. 

2. The accusative plural of nouns and participles of the third 
declension ; as, TiTavag, rvKTovrdg, notjuevag, typevag, &c. (but 
fiaaiXedg, from j3aac?Jd). The accusative plural of the first de- 
clension, On the other hand, is always long. 

3. Adverbs in ag are short ; as, rceTidg, arpefiag, dyicag. 

4. kg is short in the second person of the different tenses 
which terminate therein ; as, ereytjag, rey^eiag, olddg, teXotnag, 
7ri(j>VKag. 

5. By a license of the Doric dialect, forms in ag, otherwise 
long, are occasionally shortened, and that, too, even in accusa- 
tives plural of the first declension; as, fiolpdg (Theocrit., ii., 
160) ; avrdg (Id., iii., 2) ; vv^dg (Id, iv., 29). 

II. Final i, iv, and ig. 

I. Final i is short ; as, l<jtt, brt, peTX, tvittovgT, rldqfu, &c. 

Exceptions. 

1. But the abridged form Kpi (for Kpidrj) is long, together with 
the names of letters in i ; as, m, &c. 

2. The paragogic i, added by the Attic comic poets and ora- 
tors to certain pronouns and adverbs, is likewise long ; as, ov- 
togI, vvvl, qvtugi, &c. So the similar t in the words 66l, ravrl, 
tisvpi, &e. 

3. Adverbs ending in t, and formed from nouns, have the i 
either long or short, but more commonly short ; such as dfiox- 
6C, afiaxyri, iravdtjfri, navo\iiki, aTrovTjTt, &c. But those which 
refer to nations have the i always short ; as, ZkvOlgtl, 'Apyo- 
Tilgti, BapSaptGTi, &c. 

II. Final iv is short ; as, tvktovoiv, ipiv, nakXv, kqTZv, nptv, vcv, 

Exceptions, 

I. Final iv, making Ivog in the genitive, is long ; as, fnjyfitv, 
hcrlp* 



FINAL SYLLABLES. 



519 



2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; as, 
tiehQlv (otherwise 6eX<ptg), ulktIv, piv, lv, Xlv. 

3. The datives plural nfitv and vfuv 9 though in several instan- 
ces Sophocles makes ijfuv and v/iiv, and the Epic dialect has 
also afifitv, v/jLfjLtv. 

III. Final tf is short ; as, dec, rptc, n6?u^ } rvpavvlq, &c. 

Exceptions. 

1. Monosyllabic nouns, and those which have two termina- 
tions for the nominative ; as, ?c> %>tg, pi^ Klg, deXdlg, durlg. 

2. Dissyllables which make the penult of the genitive long; 
as, a^£c, f3a?i6tg, (cXtjlg, Kvvfxlg. Kpi]7rlg, bpvlq, &c. 

3. Polysyllables with two short syllables before the last ; as, 
j3arpaxlg, Kahafitt;, Kavovlg, TzloKafil^ j)a<pavts, but not fiadeXic, 

4. Adjectives in to, compounded from long forms, are like- 
wise long in the final syllable ; as, akiKprimg, (3advKV7]fiZg, &c. 

III. Final v, vv, vp, and i>c. 

I. Final v is short ; as, av, yovv, yTiVKv, d&Kpv, aurv. 

Exceptions. 

1. The third person singular of the imperfect and second 
aorist of verbs in vfit ; as, edv, I^D : also the second person of 
the imperative in one of its forms ; as, deUvv, ofivv. 

2. The names of the letters ftv, vv, and fictitious words ; as, 
«fj ypv. 

II. Final vv is short ; as, avv, 7ro?ivv, ,3paSvv, frvyvvv. 

Exceptions. 

1. The accusative of nouns which have vg in the nomina- 
tive ; as, ikvv, IxOvv, iaxvv, btppvv, fivv. 

2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; as, 
$6pKi>v (otherwise Qopuvc;) ; or vvog in the genitive ; as, fiouovv. 

3. The first person singular of the imperfect and the second 
aorist of verbs in v/xl ; as, e<pvv, Idvv, kddnvvv, h&vyvvv. 

4. Nt>v, " wow?," is long ; but vvv, the enclitic, is for the most 
part short. It is long, however, on several occasions in tragedy, 
and almost always long in comedy. 

III. Final vp is long ; as, nvp, fidprvp. Yet, in the oblique cases, 
these make nvpoz, irvpi : fidprvpog, tidprvpi. 

IV. Final v$ is short ; as, dadvg, nopvg, Kfjxvc, npeaSvg, (3apvc, 6f£f. 



620 



OF FEET. 



Exceptions. 

1. Nouns in vg, which have vog in the genitive ; as, 
Vkvg, ixOvg, vrjdvg, 6(f>pvg y irTnjdvg. 

2. Nouns which have two terminations in the nominative ; 
as, $6pKvg. 

3. Monosyllables ; as, /zDf, Gvg. 

4. Terminations of verbs in v/ii ; as, deinvvg (second person 
singular present), SecKvvg (participle), edeinvvg, &c. 



OF FEET. 

I. A foot, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables, and is 
either simple or compound. 

II. Of the simple feet four are of two, and eight of three syllables. 

III. There are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. 



^ g f Pyrrhich . 

o| I Spondee . 

s iS ] Iambus . 

£ >> I Trochee . 

( Tribrach . 
Molossus . 
Dactyl . . 
Anapaest . 
Bacchius . 
Antibacchius 
Amphibrach 
Amphimacer 



< 



be 02 



Simple Feet. 

two short syllables . 
two long syllables 
one short and one long 
one long and one short 



three short " izolefibg. 

three long evx^fj. 
one long and two short . " Gtifidrd. 
two short and one long . " ftuGihevg. 
one short and two long . " avaaoel. 
two long and one short . " [idvTevfid. 
one long between two short " &d?„aooa. 
one short between two long " deGnoTfjg. 

Compound Feet. 



as, dedg . 

" tied. 
" cQfxd. 



a 

o 
c 



fChoriambus . 
Antispast . . 
Ionic a majore 
Ionic a minore 
Paeon primus 
Paeon secundus 
Paeon tertius 
Paeon quartus 
Epitritus primus 
Epitritus secundus 
Epitritus tertius 
Epitritus quartus 
Proeeleusmatieus 
Dispondaeus . . 
Diiambus . . . 

VDitrochaeus . . 

Dochmius 



Trochee and Iambus 
Iambus and Trochee 
Spondee and Pyrrhich 
Pyrrhich and Spondee 
Trochee and Pyrrhich 
Iambus and Pyrrhich 
Pyrrhich and Trochee 
Pyrrhich and Iambus 
Iambus and Spondee 
Trochee and Spondee 
Spondee and Iambus 
Spondee and Trochee 
Two Pyrrhichs . . 
Two Spondees . . 
Two Iambi .... 
Two Trochees . . 



" outypdcvvfj. 
" dfidprfjfid. 

" KOGflfjTOpd. 
" 1T?i€OVeKT7jg. 

" dGTpdXdyog. 
" dvd^log. 
" dvddrjfid. 
" $edyevfjg. 
" dfxdprCyTifj . 
" dvdpdcpdvrf/g. 
" evpvadlvfjg. 
" 7iG)6r)Tf)pd. 
" TrdTiejulog. 
" GVvdovTievGQ. 
" eirZGTdTfjg. 
" dvGTVxVfJ-a,. 



Antispast and long syllable dfidpTT/fidriov. 



DACTYLIC MEASURE. 



521 



METRE. 

1. Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of sylla- 
bles and feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and in this sense 
it applies not only to an entire verse, but to a part of a verse, or any 
number of verses. 

2. But a metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two 
feet, and sometimes one foot only. 

3. There are nine principal metres ; viz., 1. Iambic; 2. Trochaic; 
3. Anapaestic ; 4. Dactylic ; 5. Choriambic ; 6. Antispastic ; 7. Ionic 
a majore ; 8. Ionic a minore ; 9. Paeonic. 

4. These names are derived from the feet which prevail in them. 
Each species of verse would seem originally to have been composed 
of those feet solely from which it derives its name ; and other feet, 
equal in time, were not admitted until afterward, and then only un- 
der certain restrictions. 

5. It must be carefully noted, that two feet make a metre in the 
iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic measures, but that one foot consti- 
tutes a metre in all the rest. 

6. When a verse consists of one metre, it is called monometer ; 
when it has two metres, dimeter; three metres, trimeter; four, 
tetrameter; five, pentameter ; six, hexameter; seven, heptameter. 

7. From what has just been remarked, it follows that, in iambic, 
trochaic, and anapaestic verse, a monometer consists of two feet ; a 
dimeter of four ; a trimeter of six. &c. ; whereas, in all other kinds of 
verse, a monometer consists of one foot, a dimeter of two, a trimeter 
of three, &c. 

8. Verses are also denominated acatalectic when complete ; cata- 
lectio when they want a syllable at the end ; Irachycatalectic when 
they want two syllables at the end ; hyper catalectic when they have 
a syllable over at the end ; and acephalous when they want a syllable 
at the beginning. 

9. The last syllable of a verse is common, except in anapaestic 
and greater Ionic measure. 

I. DACTYLIC HEXAMETER. 1 
1. Dactylic hexameter, or heroic verse, is composed of six feet, 
the last of which must be a spondee, while the fifth is almost always 
a dactyl. The first four may be either dactyls or spondees, at the 
option of the poet. Thus, 

yaldv ou\ov kclZ \ ttovtov op\up£l | (5' ovpdvo\6ev vv^. 

1. A more enlarged view of the Greek metres is given in the author's Greek 
Prosody. 

X x 2 



522 



IAMBIC MEASURE. 



2. Sometimes, in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, the 
spondee takes the place of the dactyl in the fifth foot, and the line 
is then called a spondaic one ; as, 

€) Axt\hev Ke?ie\al (jle AZ\c (j>c?ie \ [ivdf)\o dedal. 

3. A short syllable in the beginning of a foot is often made long 
in Epic poetry. The reason is, that, as the first syllable of the foot 
was pronounced with the rising inflection of the voice in heroic 
verse, so by pronouncing it, when short, with a sharper tone, it was 
brought nearer in sound to a long syllable, by which the deficiency 
in time was scarcely perceived. The following examples show a 
short caesural syllable made long at the beginning of a foot : 

vav\oxov | kg M(tev\d icai | rtg &£dg \ rjyeii6\vevev. 
dvv' ax°C I <J>t7m}\tov 6 6' ap\a Tpo)\alv fieve \ aivoyv. 

II. PENTAMETER. 

1. This species of verse consists of two equal portions, each con- 
taining two feet followed by a long syllable. 

2. The first two feet may be either dactyls or spondees ; then 
comes a long syllable, to which succeed two dactyls, followed by 
another long syllable. Thus, 

epTzv7ik\dg Kelr\al \\ ralg E'7u\Ktivia\(yi. 
Td7ifi€)\ev 6' epla\al \\ aKuir^g d\f]6bvl\alv. 

3. The pause always takes place after the long syllable in the 
middle of the verse, marked by the double line in the two examples 
just given. 

4. Another, but less correct, mode of scanning pentameters is as 
follows : the first and second feet either a dactyl or spondee the 
third always a spondee, the fourth and fifth anapaests ; as, 

ovte tzo6\€)V apEr\f)g ov\te naTiaia \ fidcvv^g. \ 

5. A dactylic hexameter and pentameter, alternately succeeding 
each other, form what is called elegiac verse. Thus, 

Kpfjvai | al 7d,6a\d£Ci tl ttS | (psvyare ; | not) roaov j tid&p ; 
Tig 0Adf | aevajoi'fll eg6e&v \ Cle7X\ov ; 

III. IAMBIC MEASURE. 

1. The only species of iambic verse which we will here consider 
is the trimeter acatalectic, called also senarius, from its containing 
six feet. 

2. In the trimeter the iambus is admitted into any one of the six 
places ; and, when all the feet are thus iambi, the verse is called a 
pure iambic one. 



ANAPAESTIC MEASURE. 



523 



3. A pure iambic line, however, is not of so frequent occurrence 
among the tragic writers as what is called a mixed one, namely, 
where other feet are admitted besides the iambus. 

4. The reason why other feet were allowed to enter appears to 
have been, not only to lessen the difficulty of composing, but in or- 
der to remove the monotonous and unpleasing effect of a succession 
of iambi, and also to impart more dignity and elevation to the style. 

5. The feet admissible into this measure, besides the iambus, are 
the spondee, dactyl, anapaest, and tribrach. The rules for their ad- 
mission are as follows : 

1. The spondee is allowed to enter into the uneven places, 
namely, the first, third, and fifth, and into no other. 

2. The dactyl is admitted into the first and third places only. 

3. The anapaest is admitted into the first place alone, except 
in the case of a proper name, when it may come into any place 
but the last, provided the anapaest be all contained within the 
proper name. 

4. The tribrach may come into any place but the last. 

6. The following lines may serve to illustrate some of these laws : 

o tz(lo\X uleivWog Oi6\i7rovg \\ Kd7iOv\fievdg. \\ 
ydfis | CTEvdyWfjLolg nal \ yooig \ \ tzT^ovtI^ \ eral. \\ 
afjT 1 dpor\ov avr\\olg yfiv\dvl \ \ P.val \ rlvd. \\ 
Tepfjs | lyC)\\[iev Zf/v\og ■ ol || 6e r* f]\6lC)v. \\ 
TerdpT\ov l7rTr\\oiiEddvT > \dnEGT\\el'kev \ irarfjp. \\ 
fifjTpog | C,vyfjv\\al nai | Trarepd \\ Kara | uraveiv. \\ 

7. The double mark in these lines, after every two feet, indicates 
what is called a metre ; it having been customary in reciting iambic 
verses to make a short pause after every second foot. Hence the 
name trimeter given to this species of lines, from their containing 
each three of these metres. 

IV. ANAP^STIC MEASURE. 

1. The most common species of anapaestic verse is the dimeter. 
In a system of legitimate dimeters each metre should end with a 
word, and the system should end with a catalectic verse called the 
paroemiac, preceded by a monometer acatalectic. 

2. This metre admits indiscriminately the dactyl and spondee for 
the anapaest. But an anapaest ought not to follow a dactyl, to avoid 
too many short syllables occurring together. 

3. In the catalectic verse, or paroemiac, which closes a system, the 
catalectic syllable should be preceded by an anapaest. There are, 
however, some verses in which it is joined to a spondee. 



524 



ANAPAESTIC MEASURE. 



4. The last syllable of a verse in this metre, with the exception 
of the paroemiac, is not common, but subject to the same laws of 
quantity as if it were found in any other part of the verse. 

5. The following is a system of anapaestic dimeters, closing with 
a paroemiac : 

el yap \ fi' vno yrjv, \\ vepdev | r' dtSov || 
rov v£Kpo | Sey/uovog \\ eig airep | dvrbv || 
Tdprapov \ fjnev, \\ deofioig \ dlvrolg \\ 
dyplCag \ ire'kaGdg, \\ tig fif)\Tl tieog, || 
jLtTjre rig | dlTibg \\ rolad' Eire | yfjdel. || 
vvv 6' aid\epldv \\ Klvvyfl \ o rd?,ug || 
exdpolg | enXxdprWd 7re7rdv6\d. 



APPENDIXES. 



APPENDIX I. 

GREEK ALPHABET. 
J. According to tradition, Cadmus brought sixteen letters from 
Phoenicia into Greece, to which Palamedes, at a subsequent period, 
added four more, namely, £, 0, x ; and Simonides, at a still later 
day, increased this number by other four, £ f, «. 

2. The meaning of this tradition evidently is, that the Phoenician 
alphabet was introduced into different parts of Greece in a more or 
less perfect shape ; that some tribes received all the letters, while 
others were content with sixteen ; that these last-mentioned tribes, 
however, gradually increased the number of alphabetical characters, 
by borrowing, at two different epochs, certain letters previously used 
in the more perfect systems of other Grecian communities. 

3. The old sixteen, or primitive Cadmean letters, are supposed to 
have been the following, the v being assigned to its true place as 
the representative of the digamma, and being indicated by the old 
sign of the digamma, namely, F: 

ABTAEFlKAMNOnPST. 

4. A change, however, subsequently took place as regarded the 
introduction of T, which was formed from Fav, or digamma, by 
splitting its upper part. This new r letter was then placed after the 
T, while the F itself was omitted. 

5. The Ionians first adopted all the twenty-four letters, and of 
them first the Samians, from whom they were received by the Athe- 
nians ; but it was not till after the Peloponnesian War, in the ar- 
chonship of Euclides (B.C. 403), that they were used in public acts. 
Hence the twenty-four letters are called 'Icjviko, ypd/ufiara, and the 
old sixteen 'Arnica ypaniiara. 

6. In the most ancient times, according to Pausanias (v., 25), the 
Greeks, like the Orientals, wrote from right to left. They soon be- 
gan, however, to write the first line from the left to the right, in the 
second from the right to the left, and so on alternately. This was 
called fiovorpotyridov, from its resembling the mode in which the ox 
turns with the plough. So the laws of Solon were written. But, 
as early as the time of Herodotus, it was the established custom to 
write from left to right. 



526 



APPENDIX II. 



APPENDIX II. 

DIGAMMA. 1 

1. The whole subject of the digamma rests on the following re- 
markable fact : A certain number of words beginning with a vowel, 
especially the pronoun 06, ol, e, and also eISu, coina, dnelv, ava^ 
*l'Mog, olvog, ohog, epyov, laog, luaaTog, with their derivatives, have, 
in Homer, the hiatus so often before them, that, leaving these words 
out of the account, the hiatus, which is now so frequent in Homer, 
becomes extremely rare, and, in most of the remaining cases, can 
be easily and naturally accounted for. These same words have 
also, in comparison with others, an apostrophe very seldom before 
them ; and, moreover, the immediately preceding long vowels and 
diphthongs are far less frequently rendered short than before other 
words. 

2. From an attentive examination of the subject, the illustrious 
Bentley was led to conclude, that the words before which these 
deviations from the usual rules of prosody took place, although be- 
ginning with a vowel, must have been pronounced at least, if not 
written, as if beginning with a consonant. He recollected that some 
ancient grammarians mentioned a letter as more particularly used 
by the iEolians or most ancient Greeks ; and that its existence 
might be traced in the changes which some Latin w T ords, derived 
from the ^Eolic Greek, had undergone ; as, olvog, vinum ; Ig, vis ; 
ohog, vicus ; fjp, ver. The letter alluded to, which, from its form, 
has the name of digamma or double gamma (F), is yet to be seen in 
some ancient inscriptions and on coins ; and it supplies the data for 
resolving the cases of metrical difficulty, where the lengthening of a 
short syllable uniformly takes place before particular words. 

3. Let us examine some of the instances which are found at the 
very opening of the Iliad. 'ArpslS^g re ava% avdp&v (v. 7) : 'Aya/ii/i- 
vovt r/vSavs d-v/uti (v. 24) : 'knoXkuvi clvclktl (v. 36) : 6 6' tj'le vvkti he- 
nog (v. 47) : daporjeag fiaka, elite (v. 85). In all these cases, accord- 
ing to the practice of the language in the days of Attic purity, the 
short vowel ought to have been elided before ava%, r/vdavs, &c. But 
if we write Fdvatj, ^rjvdavE, &c, or fancy the words pronounced 
wdvatj, wfivdavE, WEWoucug, wecke. &c, the difficulty will in a great 
degree disappear. 

1. Buttmann, Jlusf. Or. SprachL, p. 27. — Buttmann's Larger Gr. Or., p. 28, 
Robinson's transl. — Maltby's Greek Gradus^ p. 11, seq.—Anthoris Homer, p. 286. 



APPENDIX III. 



527 



APPENDIX III. 

DIALECTS. 

1. Of the primitive language of the Greeks the most traces are 
left to us in their Epic poems, the oldest monuments of the language 
of this people. The peculiar mode of speech observed in these is 
called the Epic dialect. Its basis formed the old national language 
of the Greeks, which the poet, however, for his own purpose, va- 
riously modified and enriched. Its principal characteristic is a 
rhythmical harmony and a powerful fullness of tone. 

2. The Epic dialect is expressed the most purely and in a perfect 
form in the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The rest formed them- 
selves according to the model of these two, particularly of Homer. 
The most eminent of them are, Theognis and the other gnomic 
poets, Apollonius of Rhodes, the author of the poems extant under 
the names of Orpheus, Quintus Smyrnaeus, and Nonnus. 

3. Since the Epic language was derived from the stores of the 
general national language, and variously enriched by the poet him- 
self ; since, moreover, the dialect found in the oldest Epic remained 
in after times appropriated to this species of poetry, and thus was 
continually advanced in civilization and culture by new admixtures ; 
it is natural, therefore, that it should not appear as a complete and 
finished whole, but should betray in its single parts many deviations 
and irregularities. 

4. If the basis of the Epic is the old primitive language of the 
Greeks, and the primitive contains all the germs of the subsequent 
development of a language, we may easily conceive how this dialect 
should evince divers traces of all the peculiarities which afterward 
were individually cultivated and retained in the single dialects. 
Thus, in Epic occur JSolisms, Dorisms, Atticisms, and the like, as 
fundamental peculiarities of the Greek language. But it is erroneous 
to regard the Epic language, on that account, as a mixture of all the 
dialects ; as, on the other hand, it is wrong to confound it with the 
Ionic, from the circumstance of its having many fundamental pecu- 
liarities in common with that dialect. The same obtains of ^Eolisms, 
Dorisms, Ionisms, and Atticisms in all cases where reference is 
made to them by grammarians and commentators. 

5. The Hellenes, who migrated through Thrace into the country 
afterward called Hellas, were divided into several tribes, whereof 
two, the Dorians and Ionians, chiefly extended themselves. Each 
of these tribes cultivated an independent and peculiar character in 
language, as well as in manners and mode of life, and after their 



528 



APPENDIX III. 



names we denominate the two principal dialects the Doric and 
Ionic. 

6. The Dorians, the most powerful of the Hellenic tribes, preserved 
their dialect, which was widely diffused as the common language in 
Hellas proper and the colonies, pure from foreign intermixture, but 
did little for the particular advancement of their language. Hence 
the Doric dialect exhibits the most harshness in its forms of words, 
and a flatness of tone from the frequent use of the dull sound A, a 
peculiarity termed in Greek ^'karuaaiioc. Besides this dialect, the 
Molic also was formed according to the model of antiquity, and had 
many peculiarities in common with the Doric, whence it was con- 
sidered as a refined collateral form of the same, cultivated particular- 
ly for the use of the poets. 

7. The Doric and ^Eolic dialects became and continued to be the 
language of lyric and bucolic poetry. The character of the Doric is 
most purely expressed in the odes of Pindar ; while those of Alcaeus, 
Sappho, and Corinna exhibit rather the ^Eolic mode. The Doric is 
purer in the Idyls of Theocritus. In the lyric parts of the Attic 
tragedies also an approach to the sound of the Doric dialect has been 
preserved. Fragments of the Pythagorean philosophy furnish the 
only specimens of Doric prose. 

8. Besides these, several dialects sprung up in the mouth of the 
people as individual varieties of the generally-diffused Doric dialect. 
But their peculiar character is, for the most part, known only from 
insulated expressions and short sentences, which are adduced in 
historians and comic poets. The most celebrated and extensive of 
them are the Laconian, Boeotian, and Thessalian dialects, and, next 
to these, the Sicilian. 

9. The Ionians, driven from their settlements by the Dorians, be- 
took themselves principally to Attica, and, when that barren country 
was unable to support the multitude of inhabitants, to the opposite 
coast of Asia. Under the mild climate of Lesser Asia, the form of 
their language became mild and soft, and nearly allied to the Epic. 
Thus was developed the Ionic dialect, the principal characteristic of 
which is a softness of expression, acquired from the frequency of 
vowels and the solution of harsh syllables by interposed sounds. 
Herodotus and Hippocrates wrote in this dialect. 

10. The numerous peculiarities common to the Ionic with the 
Epic dialect have occasioned the latter also to be denominated Ionic ; 
although with this distinction, that the appellation of Old Ionic is 
given to the Epic, but to the Ionic that of New Ionic. 

11. The language of the Ionians who remained behind in Attica 



APPENDIX III. 



529 



proceeded differently in its formation ; and hence arose a new dialect, 
the Attic, which observed an intermediate course between the Doric 
harshness and Ionic softness, adopting a perfect rotundity in its forms 
of words, and the greatest pliancy in their construction. The politi- 
cal consequence and the high pitch of intellectual culture at which 
Athens arrived, gave a wide circulation to this dialect, and the con- 
siderable number of eminent writings which are composed in it, and 
have been preserved, determine it for the groundwork in the study 
of the Greek language. 

12. The most celebrated works written in the flourishing period 
of the Attic language and culture are, the historical books of Thu- 
cydides, the historical and philosophical writings of Xenophon, the 
philosophical books of Plato, and the orations of Demosthenes, 
^Eschines, Lysias, Isocrates, &c, besides the tragedies of ^Eschylus, 
Sophocles, and Euripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes. 

13. That peculiarity which the single Grecian states had preserved 
in language and manners disappeared with the general decline of 
their freedom. Athens, however, for a long time continued the 
chief seat of liberal information ; and the Attic dialect, as the purest 
and most widely diffused, became the court language of the now 
ruling Macedonians, and, by degrees, the general language of writing 
and the people. Hence it necessarily followed, that much of the old 
peculiarity of this dialect was sacrificed, and many innovations were 
introduced in expression and inflection. This language, formed on 
the basis of the Attic dialect, is comprehended under the name of 
the common dialect. The authors of this period, however, endeavor- 
ed to exhibit the Attic dialect pure and uncorrupted, according to the 
early models, although many peculiarities of more modern times are 
interspersed throughout their writings. Hence their style has re- 
ceived the appellation of the later Attic. 

14. Writers of this class are, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pausanias, 
Apollodorus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Strabo, Dionysius of 
Halicarnassus, Lucian, JSlian, Arrian, &c. 

15. In Macedonia the Greek language was mingled with much 
foreign alloy ; and, thus corrupted, it spread itself, with the exten- 
sion of the Macedonian empire, over other barbaric nations. Hence 
arose what may be denominated the Macedonic dialect. 

16. Alexandrea was a colony of liberal information under the Mace- 
donian rulers. There a circle of learned men assembled together, 
and made it their chief study to preserve the purity of the genuine 
Attic dialect by rejecting all modern accessions, although their style 
also fell short of the ancient models. But the Greek language un- 

Y Y 



530 



APPENDIX IV. 



derwent a peculiar reformation by the translators of the Old and the 
authors of the New Testament, who designated by Greek expres- 
sions things of Oriental conception and application. As this style 
occurs only in the Scriptures and some Christian writers, it has 
been called the ecclesiastical dialect, while others have preferred the 
epithet of Hellenistic. 1 

17. By degrees, the old Greek language, under the influence of 
various causes, so far degenerated in the mouth of the people, and 
was deformed by so much heterogeneous admixture, that it gave 
rise to the new Greek, which has almost entirely exchanged the 
primitive character of the old for that of the more modern tongues, 
and still continues, in ancient Greece, as the language of the 
country. 

APPENDIX IV. 

ACCENTS. 

1. In every polysyllabic word, one syllable is to be regarded as 
the fundamental or radical syllable, or, in other words, that which 
contains the principal idea of the word. The rest, on the contrary, 
which are prefixed or appended to the fundamental syllable in the 
formation of words, are, in respect to the idea, of less weight. 

2. The ascendent importance of the fundamental syllable of a 
word is, in every independent language, indicated by a sharpened 
elevation of the voice in its pronunciation ; as, for example, du in 
duty, or set in beset. 

3. This elevation of the voice in pronouncing one syllable of a 
word is called the tone or accent (npocudla, accentus), which can oc- 
cur only once in each word, and of itself is one and the same in all 
words, namely, the acute or elevated accent {npoc^dia otjeia, accentus 
acutus). As a sign for this, use is made of a stroke from right to 
left (') ; as, for example, loyog. 

4. In comparison with the accented or elevated syllable, all sylla- 
bles of a word which are not accented must be spoken with a de- 
pressed or unelevated accent (rrpocudia fSapeta, accentus gravis). 
This depressed or grave accent is represented by an opposite sign, 
namely, a stroke from left to right ( s ) ; so that "koyoc was, in fact, 
Tioydg. But, because every syllable of a word which has not the 
acute accent is necessarily to be spoken with the depressed tone, 



1. From the Greek iWrjvt^eiv, whence comes iWrjviaTtjg, as referring to one who 
speaks after the Greek manner, an(f, in the present case, to an Oriental trying to 
speak Greek. 



APPENDIX IV. 



531 



the sign for the grave is not used, hut these syllables remain un- 
marked. 

5. As an indication of the proper grave, therefore, is unnecessary, 
its sign is used for another purpose, namely, to mark what is called 
the softened acute on the final syllable of words in a continued dis- 
course, and of which mention will presently be made. 

6. If two vowels, the first of which has the acute, the second the 
grave, are united into one sound, this long sound receives a sign, 
which is formed by the union of those two, namely, ( /v ) or (*) ; for 
which, however, a twisted line (*) is more conveniently used, 1 indi- 
cating that the accent is to be lengthened in the pronunciation 
(npocudla irepLGiru/Ltevn, accentus circumflexus) ; as, for example, dfjhoc. 
for deeTioc, ctifia for aob/xa. 

Position of the Accents, 

In order to accentuate a Greek word correctly, it is necessary, 1. 
To determine the syllable on which the accent rests ; and, 2. To know 
the sign by which, according to the nature of that and the remain- 
ing syllables of the word, the accent is to be indicated. Concern- 
ing these two points, we shall here briefly assign what admits of 
accurate definition. 

I. Determination of the Accented Syllable. 

1. A Greek word can have its tone or aceent only on one of the 
last three syllables. 

2. In simple radical words (that is, those which are formed with 
a definite termination from an existing root, and not derived from a 
word already formed), the accent rests on the radical syllable ; thus, 
root Xey, whence Aeyo, "Isay:" Xi^ig, "expression:" hoyoc, " speech." 

3. In words which are derived from others, either by a prefix or 
an appended termination, the accent usually rests on the supple- 
mental part (because this, as the sign of distinction from the radical 
word, defines this idea) ; thus, from %6yoe is derived akoyoc, "speech- 
less :" from fcapnoc, "fruit" come anapnoe, "fruitless," and evuap- 
noc, "fruitful :" from teyio are derived Ae/crdf, " said" and ^e/creof, 
"to be said:" from "an animal" is derived dnpiov, "a wild 
beast." 

4. The nature of the final syllable has a decisive influence on the 
position of the accent ; namely, if the final syllable of a word be long 
by nature, the accent can not lie farther toward the beginning of 
the word than on the penultimate syllable. For a long syllable 



1. In the Porsonian type a semicircular mark is employed ; as, cGjua. 



532 



APPENDIX IV. 



being equal to two short ones, if the accent were placed on the an- 
tepenult when the last syllable is long by nature, it would be placed, 
in fact, four places back from the end, whereas it can never go far- 
ther back than three. 

The following cases, however, are to be noted as exceptions 
from this last rule : 

L The o) which the Attic and Ionic dialects make use of in 
declension for the o of the other dialects has no influence on 
the position of the accent. It is right, therefore, to accentuate 
VTcepn^ecDC (Attic and Ionic for vnepTrTiEog) : pivoKEptog, f* a rhi- 
noceros :" dvvauecog, "of power:" 'Arpeldeo, " of Atrides." 

2. The same exception holds good of the syllables at and oi y 
as terminations in declension and conjugation. Hence we 
properly accentuate rpdne^at, "tables:" leyerai, "it is said:" 
kla^oi, " stags" The termination of the third person singular 
of the optative, however, again forms an exception to this, and, 
being the result of contraction, is long as regards the accent. 
We are therefore to accentuate kic<j>epoi, not stccbEpoi, from sutps- 
p(o : vLK-fjoai, not vUnaai, as the optative of vlkcico. 1 
5. Some small words are so unimportant of themselves, that, in 
discourse, they almost unite their sound with the following word, 
and, therefore, remain unaccented. These are the forms 6, rj, oi, al, 
of the article, besides the prepositions elg or tv or eh, ek or kg ; the 
conjunctions el, cog, and the negative ov, ovtc, ovx- These are called 
arova, "toneless" or nponliTLKa, "proclitic." Some of them, on a 
change of signification or position, receive the acute, namely, 1. The 
adduced forms of the article, when used as pronouns ; 2. cog, when 
it either stands for ovrcog, " thus" "so," or when, in the signification 
" as" or " like," it is placed after the chief word ; as, KaKol cog, "as 
cowards" or " coward-like ;" 3. ov or ova, when it directly denies, 
without an additional word, like the English " no" or is placed af- 
ter the word which it negatives. 

II. Sign of the Accent according to the Nature of the Syllables. 

If the syllable on which the tone rests is known, the question 
then is, with what sign it is to be accented. Concerning this the 
following rules obtain : 

1. The acute can stand on each of the last three syllables; as, 
naKog, "bad:" noTiig, "a city :" avdpconog, "a man." But it can stand 
on the third syllable from the end only when the last syllable is short 



1. From these fundamental rules numerous exceptions are found in Greek, which 
are best learned from actual reading and a good lexicon. 



APPENDIX IV. 



533 



by nature ; thus, avdpuirov, avdpuiru, avOponotg, although the nomi- 
native is marked avdpuirog. 1 

2. The circumflex can only stand on a syllable long by nature, and 
only on the final or penultimate syllable, but never on the penulti- 
mate unless the final syllable is short by nature ; thus, UepiKhrjc, 
"Pericles:" kclkov, "of evil :" x ( ^P 0C i "space:" ^elne, "leave." On 
the contrary, Xelttelv, " to leave :" yet helfai, x&P°h according to 
Rule II., $ 4, of the previous head. 

3. The mark properly belonging to the grave accent appears only 
on the last syllable of words standing in a continued discourse, as 
a sign of the softened tone of the acute. Thus, avrjp, "a man:" 
ayadoc, "brave:" but in connected discourse, avrjp ayadbc ov (pevyei, 
"a brave manfleeth not away." 

4. The intimate connection of discourse, which would be inter- 
rupted by the sharpened pronunciation of the acute on the final sylla- 
ble of a word, alone renders necessary the transition of the acute 
into the grave. This change, therefore, must not take place before 
one of the greater signs of interpunction (period and colon) ; nor even 
before a comma, when it indicates a really distinct member of a 
proposition. But we also use the comma in assigning nearer defini- 
tions, and predicates, before relatives and before expositive or in- 
tentional particles, where evidently the internal connection of the 
discourse must not be interrupted, and in this case, in Greek, the 
sign of the acute must not be placed on the final syllable before the 
comma. Thus, it is proper to write, ri di, fjv xPW aTa KoXkh tyy 
tic ; and, in like manner, oi fiev ayadoi, oi 6e kclkoI, because here is 
a perceptible caesura in the discourse ; but nar^p, be edoKe, and eXeye 
7ro/Ua, (jf, k. t. A., because here no abrupt separation of the single 
members of the proposition occurs. 

5. If the third syllable from the end is accented, it always pos- 
sesses the acute. 

6. If the final syllable is accented, it always bears the acute (or, 
in continued discourse, the grave), except when it arises by con- 
traction, or forms the genitive and dative of the first two declen- 
sions, or belongs, as the termination, to adverbs in of. Thus, (3a- 
Gikeve, " a king" but fSa<ji?^el (contracted from flacnliei) : Kanoc, Katcy, 
nanov, naKOvc, but ko.kov, KaKrjc, /ca/fov, /ca/ca>, /caicy, /ca/c&v, kqkolc (as 
genitive and dative of the first two declensions) ; kcikoc, an adverb. 

7. Every dissyllabic word whose penult is long by nature, and fol- 
lowed by a short final syllable, is marked with a circumflex on the 



1. For the double exception to the rule, that the acute can stand on the antepenult 
in case only of a short final syllable, see Rule II., t) 4, of the previous head. 

Y y 2 



534 



APPENDIX IV. 



penult, if that penult be the place of the accent ; as, XPW^ X^P°Ci tmx°C> 
KetaOaL. 

8. Words have denominations according to the position of the ac- 
cent. If the final syllable bears the acute, the word is called an 
oxyton (b&Tovov), as, for example, tcaKog ; if the circumflex, a peris- 
pome (7T epionufievov), as, ttoleiv : if the final syllable is unaccented, 
the word is a baryton (papvrovov). If the accent rests on the penult 
as an acute, the word is paroxyton (napoZvrovov), as, vofioe. : if as a 
circumflex, properispome (TrponEpHjizuiJiEvov), as, c&fia : and, lastly, if 
the acute stands on the third syllable from the end, the word is pro- 
paroxyton {nponapot-vrovov), as, avOpunoe. 

III. Change of Accents. 
1. If a word possessing an accent experiences such a change, by 
declension, or conjugation, or composition, that either the number 
or measure of its syllables is increased, the accent also is usually 
changed. These changes of the accent are of a threefold kind, 
namely : 

1. The accent remains on the syllable on which it stands, but is 
itself altered, and becomes, 

(A.) An acute from a circumflex; as, aapaToc, from a&jiai 
X<*>pov, from x&P°C '- fcsl/ieda, from Keladat. 
(B.) A circumflex from an acute ; as, <j>Evye, from tpevyu. 

2. The accent advances towards the end of a word, 

(A.) If the word is increased by the annexation of syllables, 
so that the original accented syllable has more than two sylla- 
bles between it and the end of the word ; as, avOpuiroiat, from 
avdpconog : peheeaat, from /3s2,og : ttlvovtuv, from iziva : eareX- 
heady v, from aTeXka. 

(B.) If the word receives a termination which always or 
usually has the accent ; as, rerv^wf, rsrvtisvai, rvneie, rervfifie- 
vog, all formed from tvttto) : &7}p6e, from &f}p : Kiog , from nig, &c. 

(C.) If, in the change of a word, the final syllable, which was 
before short, becomes long ; as, avdpuirov, from avBpunog : M- 
pov, from srspog : Trpayfiaruv, from vrpayfia. 

3. The accent is drawn back toward the beginning of a word. 
This takes place, 

(A.) If the word receives additions at the beginning, or if the 
cause is removed which held the accent on the penult; as, 
Itvktov, ETvizTEy from tvtttcj : iraidsvs, from iraidevu : a<j>ihog, 
from (jtihoc : ovvodog, from 666g. 

(B.) If, in dissyllabic words, the final syllable, which should 



APPENDIX IV. 



535 



bear the accent, is dropped on account of a succeeding vowel ; 
as, (pjjfi* ey6 for <j>r]pC : and ttoXW enadov for itoiKkd : deiv' erXnv 
for deivd. 

But prepositions and particles, when the accented final vowel 
is dropped, remain unaccented ; as, eV avrov for hm : nap* e/not 
for izapd : a?Ck' eyu for dXkd ; ovd' okiyov for ovde. 

IV. Recession of the Accent to a preceding Word. 

1. Several small words unite themselves so closely, in respect to 
sense, with the preceding word, that they must be blended with it, 
as it were, in pronunciation. For this reason they throw back 
their accent on the preceding word, and hence derive the name of 
enclitics (fiopia h/tcXtTifca). 

2. Such enclitics are : the indefinite pronoun rlc, ti, through all 
the cases ; the oblique cases of the personal pronouns, \iov or fiev> 
fiol, jus, gov or cev, goi, ge, ov or eo, and eOev, ol, e, fitv, viv, cr0e, G<puE 9 
ctjicjiv, gQecov, G(}>tGL or g^lg'lv, and gqiv, g^eclc, g$ecl : together with 
the present indicative of dpi and Qnpl (except the second person 
singular etc or e?, " thou art :" <j>ye, " thou sayest") ; and, lastly, the 
adverbs and particles 7r6c, 7n5, 7ro£, tct}, 7tov, nodi, irodiv, kote, re, rot, 
ye, ke (or kev), tirjv, vv (or vvv), nip, pd. 

3. All these words throw back their accent, as acute, on the last 
syllable of the preceding word ; but the accentuation of that prece- 
ding word decides whether this accent must be expressed or not. 
Concerning this point the following rules must be observed : 

(A.) If the preceding word is accented oh the last syllable, 
or is marked with the acute on the penult, the enclitic loses its 
accent without farther change of the preceding word ; yet it is 
evident that the grave becomes an acute, because, properly, the 
enclitic unites itself immediately to the preceding word, and the 
accent syllable is, therefore, no longer to be considered as stand- 
ing at the end of a word. Thus, we write dvrjp tic (as if it were 
dvrjpTLc) : dyaOoc re Kakog re : (pilti gc : fiadrjTdv tivuv, avdpa re, 
tyikoc fiov. 

But, in the last case, when the preceding word has an acute 
on the penult, dissyllabic enclitics retain their proper accent ; as, 
7)v hoyoc tcote kvavrlog GfpiGcv. 

(B.) If the preceding word is accented with a circumflex on 
the penult, or an acute on the antepenult, the accent, thrown 
back from the enclitic, stands as an acute on the final syllable ; 
as, avSpunoc egti -&vt]t6c : 6 KpoiGoc nore eTie^ev. 

If several enclitics follow one another, the preceding always 



536 



APPENDIX IV. 



takes the accent of the succeeding, and the last only remains 
unaccented ; as, el rtc tlvu §r\Gi (jloi irapelvai. 

(C.) The enclitic retains its accent (1.) In personal pronouns 
after a preposition ; as, nepl gov, rrapa vol, npbc ge : and, in this 
case, the longer forms of the pronoun of the first person, k/iov, 
ifiot, e(ie, must always be used ; as, e£ kfiov (not k k fiov) : kv kfiot 
(not kv /iot). (2.) In the verb egtl (which then draws back its 
accent to the root), when it is used in the emphatic significa- 
tion " there is," " there exists," " it is situated" or else stands 
followed by an infinitive, for e^egti, " it is possible," " it is per- 
mitted," " one can ;" as, for example, Qebc egtiv, " there is a 
God:" egtiv ovtwc, "it is so situated:" egtiv idelv, "one can 
see." 

4. From the enclitics adduced under § 2 must yet be distinguish- 
ed the particles 6s and &s or -&ev, which entirely lose their independ- 
ence, and become incorporated with the preceding word. Strictly 
considered, in annexing these particles to a word, the given rules 
of inclination ought also to be observed. As regards &e and -&ev, 
they are usually viewed in the same light as any other appended 
termination ; and thus we write oikoOev, not oIkoBev (from olkoc). In 
the particle 6e, however, two cases are to be distinguished ; thus, if 
it is annexed to forms of nouns, it has the same influence as every 
other enclitic, and hence we write oikovSe (from olkoc), 'AlSocSe 
(from *Aig), 66/iovSe (from dofiog). But if it is annexed to demon- 
strative pronouns, the accent of the principal word advances toward 
that of the particle, and passes into the syllable immediately before 
6s ; as, togoc 6e (from togoc), tolocSe (from roloc). And this accent 
thus retains itself regularly through all the cases and forms ; con- 
sequently we write roarjde, togolSe, roaovcde : but togovSe, rocyde, 
Toorjde, Tocolcde. 



THE END. 

Hi* 7 12 * 




G 



* 8 I A ' 





Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proces 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: July 2006 

PreservationTechnologie 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATIO 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 





r o « \ 



tj^ <^v to 



% / ^ 



a i 



o n c ^ 7 * * s ^° v 



A 



1 ^ / ^ 



ft* 

c * c * -*b 



1 * * 



' . V 



.0 o 



<, y o » x ■» . A 



# 



A> c K c * *^ 



^ „^ i 



r0' 



Y 



X ^ 




^ 



